Emotion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation). "Emotional" redirects here. For other uses, see Emotional (disambiguation). Emotions Plutchik-wheel.svg Affection Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anxiety Apathy Arousal Awe Boredom Confidence Contempt Contentment Courage Curiosity Depression Desire Despair Disappointment Disgust Distrust Dread Ecstasy Embarrassment Envy Euphoria Excitement Fear Frustration Gratitude Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope Horror Hostility Hurt Hysteria Indifference Interest Jealousy Joy Loathing Loneliness Love Lust Outrage Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride Rage Regret Relief Remorse Sadness Satisfaction Schadenfreude Self-confidence Shame Shock Shyness Sorrow Suffering Surprise Terror Trust Wonder Worry Zeal Zest v t e In psychology and philosophy, emotion is a subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. A similar multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits[1] described emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (e.g., anger, surprise etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts. Emotion is often associated and considered reciprocally influential with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation.[2] It also is influenced by hormones and neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin, cortisol and GABA. Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation, positive or negative.[3] An alternative definition of emotion is a "positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity."[4] The physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emotions are a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence our behaviour. Those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking, but cognition is an important aspect of emotion, particularly the interpretation of events. For example, the experience of fear usually occurs in response to a threat. The cognition of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is an integral component to the subsequent interpretation and labeling of that arousal as an emotional state. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history, sociology, and even computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain.[5] Contents 1 Etymology, definitions, and differentiation 2 Components 3 Classification 3.1 Basic emotions 3.2 Multi-dimensional analysis 4 Theories on the experience 4.1 Ancient Greece and Middle Ages 4.2 Evolutionary theories 4.3 Somatic theories 4.4 Cognitive theories 4.5 Situated perspective on emotion 5 Genetics 6 Neurocircuitry 6.1 Prefrontal cortex 6.2 Homeostatic/primordial emotion 7 Disciplinary approaches 7.1 History 7.2 Sociology 7.3 Psychotherapy and regulation 7.4 Computer science 8 Notable theorists 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Etymology, definitions, and differentiation The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". However, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language.[6] Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.[7] Emotions have been described as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms.[8] Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity.[9] Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame.[10] Emotions have also been described as biologically given and a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors.[11] Moods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that often lack a contextual stimulus.[7] Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar constructs within the field of affective neuroscience:[8] Feelings are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions, private to the individual experiencing them. Moods are diffuse affective states that generally last for much longer durations than emotions and are also usually less intense than emotions. Affect is an encompassing term, used to describe the topics of emotion, feelings, and moods together, even though it is commonly used interchangeably with emotion. In addition, relationships exist between emotions, such as having positive or negative influences, with direct opposites existing. These concepts are described in contrasting and categorization of emotions. Graham differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all functional emotions have benefits.[12] Components In Scherer's components processing model of emotion,[13] five crucial elements of emotion are said to exist. From the component processing perspective, emotion experience is said to require that all of these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the inclusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is slightly controversial, since some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the component processing model provides a sequence of events that effectively describes the coordination involved during an emotional episode. Cognitive appraisal: provides an evaluation of events and objects Bodily symptoms: the physiological component of emotional experience Action tendencies: a motivational component for the preparation and direction of motor responses. Expression: facial and vocal expression almost always accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and intention of actions Feelings: the subjective experience of emotional state once it has occurred Classification Main article: Emotion classification A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. For example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.[14] The classification of emotions has mainly been researched from two fundamental viewpoints. The first viewpoint is that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs while the second viewpoint asserts that emotions can be characterized on a dimensional basis in groupings. Basic emotions Examples of basic emotions For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (e.g. disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.[15] Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven perspective but developed the "wheel of emotions", suggesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus distrust; and surprise versus anticipation.[15] Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Relationships exist between basic emotions, resulting in positive or negative influences.[16] Multi-dimensional analysis Two Dimensions of Emotion Through the use of multidimensional scaling, psychologists can map out similar emotional experiences, which allows a visual depiction of the "emotional distance" between experiences. A further step can be taken by looking at the map's dimensions of the emotional experiences. The emotional experiences are divided into two dimensions known as valences (how negative or positive the experience was) and arousal (extent of reaction to stimuli). These two dimensions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map.[17] Theories on the experience Ancient Greece and Middle Ages Theories about emotions stretch back to at least as far as the stoics of Ancient Greece and Ancient China. In the latter it was believed that excess emotion caused damage to qi, which in turn, damages the vital organs.[18] The four humours theory made popular by Hippocrates contributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it did for medicine. Western philosophy regarded emotion in varying ways. In stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and therefore a hindrance to virtue. Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component to virtue.[19] In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to an appetite or capacity. During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas[20] in particular. There are also theories in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza[21] and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective. Evolutionary theories Main articles: Evolution of emotion and Evolutionary psychology Illustration from Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. 19th Century Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated in the late 19th century with Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[22] Darwin argued that emotions actually served a purpose for humans, in communication and also in aiding their survival. Darwin, therefore, argued that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have universal cross-cultural counterparts. Darwin also detailed the virtues of experiencing emotions and the parallel experiences that occur in animals (see emotion in animals). This led the way for animal research on emotions and the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion. Contemporary More contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment.[3] Current research[citation needed] suggests that emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio. Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.[3] Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.[3][23] Somatic theories Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories came from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John Cacioppo,[24] António Damásio,[25] Joseph E. LeDoux[26] and Robert Zajonc[27] who are able to appeal to neurological evidence.[citation needed] James–Lange theory Main article: James–Lange theory In his 1884 article[28] William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" led directly to a physiological response, known as "emotion." To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."[28] An example of this theory in action would be as follows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.[29] Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions: e.g. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared." The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued and is still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).[30] Although mostly abandoned in its original form, Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of the James-Lange theory of emotions.[31] The James–Lange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Most contemporary neuroscientists would endorse a modified James–Lange view in which bodily feedback modulates the experience of emotion." (p. 583) Cannon–Bard theory Main article: Cannon–Bard theory Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences. He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion. He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses.[32][33] An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion. Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.[32] Two-factor theory Main article: Two-factor theory of emotion Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Maranon, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Interestingly, Maranon found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.[34] With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions. Cognitive theories With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were entirely necessary for an emotion to occur. One of the main proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following order: Cognitive appraisal—The individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the emotion. Physiological changes—The cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response. Action—The individual feels the emotion and chooses how to react. For example: Jenny sees a snake. Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger. Her brain activates Adrenaline gland which pumps Adrenaline through her blood stream resulting in increased heartbeat. Jenny screams and runs away. Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes underline coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship between the person and the environment. George Mandler provided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (Mind and Emotion, 1975, and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984) There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgements, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). Solomon claims that emotions are judgements. He has put forward a more nuanced view which responds to what he has called the ‘standard objection’ to cognitivism, the idea that a judgement that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgement cannot be identified with emotion. The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example. It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior.[35] The affect infusion model (AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that attempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with one's ability to process information. Perceptual theory Theories dealing with perception either use one or multiples perceptions in order to find an emotion (Goldie, 2007).A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions, and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings. Affective events theory This is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes— a "series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." This theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, "Reflections on Affective Events Theory", published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005. Situated perspective on emotion A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino , emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology.[36] This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals. Genetics Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems. This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems (Kurt Kortschal 2013). These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its’ ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring. In the five million years since the linages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified. This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In voles (Microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system (Hammock & Young 2005). Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language (Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005). Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans (Enard et al. 2002). Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions. Neurocircuitry Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).[37] For example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord. The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept—one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.[37] Lövheim cube of emotion Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are, while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance. In 2011, Lövheim proposed a direct relation between specific combinations of the levels of the signal substances dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin and eight basic emotions. A model was presented where the signal substances form the axes of a coordinate system, and the eight basic emotions according to Silvan Tomkins are placed in the eight corners. Anger is, according to the model, for example produced by the combination of low serotonin, high dopamine and high noradrenaline.[38] Prefrontal cortex There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach.[39] If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli[40] and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.[41] Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. The Valence Model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal cortex. The Direction Model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. The second model was supported.[42] This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (Direction Model), as unmoving but with strength and resistance (Movement Model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (Action Tendency Model). Support for the Action Tendency Model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness[43] and research on behavioral inhibition.[44] Research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the Action Tendency Model.[45][46] Homeostatic/primordial emotion Another neurological approach distinguishes two classes of emotion: "classical" emotions such as love, anger and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli, and "primordial" or "homeostatic emotions" – attention-demanding feelings evoked by body states, such as pain, hunger and fatigue, that motivate behavior (withdrawal, eating or resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state.[47] Derek Denton defines the latter as "the subjective element of the instincts, which are the genetically programmed behaviour patterns which contrive homeostasis. They include thirst, hunger for air, hunger for food, pain and hunger for specific minerals etc. There are two constituents of a primordial emotion--the specific sensation which when severe may be imperious, and the compelling intention for gratification by a consummatory act."[48] Disciplinary approaches Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined. Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities. Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities. In the field of communication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet,[49] an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe. In economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making. In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also Music and emotion). In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals. History The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example Schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyse the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural or political history perspectives. Others focus on the history of medicine, science or psychology. What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules. It is thus historically variable and open to change.[50] Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain,[51] Sweden and Australia. Furthermore, research in historical trauma suggests that some traumatic emotions can be passed on from parents to offspring to second and even third generation, presented as examples of transgenerational trauma. Sociology Main article: Sociology of emotions A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (e.g., anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (e.g., increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (e.g., smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational cues.[1] One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009).[52][53] Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions. When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self, other and situation are met or not met. People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals. Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified four emotion that all researchers consider to founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences. These more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in Turner's theory and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe. Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant. Attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion according to the conventions of the society and the situation based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands and expectations which originate from various entities. The emotion of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls and women, while fear is discouraged in boys and men. Expectations attached to social roles, such as "acting as man" and not as a woman, and the accompanying "feeling rules" contribute to the differences in expression of certain emotions. Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures. Some social institutions are seen as based on certain emotion, such as love in the case of contemporary institution of marriage. In advertising, such as health campaigns and political messages, emotional appeals are commonly found. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. Emilé Durkheim (1915/1965)[54] wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian aborigine society. He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped. These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects. In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992),[55] pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991)[56] conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990)[57] developed a microsociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependant on the emotions that people experience during interactions. Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004)[58] formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967)[59][60] into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity. There is a growing body of research applying the sociology of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of school students during classroom interactions with teachers and other students (e.g., Milne & Otieno, 2007;[61] Olitsky, 2007 [62] Tobin, et al., 2013;[63] Zembylas, 2002[64]). These studies show that learning subjects like school science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate. Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one of 6 other categories (Turner, 2009) including: evolutionary/biological theories, symbolic interactionist theories, dramaturgical theories, ritual theories, power and status theories, stratification theories, and exchange theories. This list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways. Many of these different approaches were synthesized by Turner (2007) in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions. [65] [66] [67] Psychotherapy and regulation Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience.[68] For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (e.g., trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.).[69] Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion,[70] different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).[71] Computer science Main article: Affective computing In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions.[72] In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science.[73] While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,[28] the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper[74] on affective computing.[75][76] Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors. Notable theorists William James about the time he wrote on emotions In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange (1834–1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.[77] Silvan Tomkins (1911–1991) developed the Affect theory and Script theory. The Affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion , which he called the affect system, was the motivating force in human life.[78] Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions;[79] Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion;[80] Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation. An American philosopher, Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003). Peter Goldie (1946–2011) British philosopher who specializes in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character Influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociologists: Lisa Feldman Barrett – Social philosopher and psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion. John Cacioppo – from the University of Chicago, founding father with Gary Berntson of social neuroscience. Randall Collins - (born 1941) American sociologist from the University of Pennsylvania developed the interaction ritual theory which includes emotional entrainment model António Damásio (born 1944) – Portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the US Richard Davidson (born 1951) – American psychologist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience. Paul Ekman (born 1934) – Psychologist specializing in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions Barbara Fredrickson – Social psychologist who specializes in emotions and positive psychology. Nico Frijda (born 1927) – Dutch psychologist who specializes in human emotions, especially facial expressions Arlie Russell Hochschild (born 1940) – American sociologist whose central contribution was in forging a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in social life and the larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations. Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949) – American neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings of memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of fear George Mandler (born 1924) - American psychologist who wrote influential books on cognition and emotion Jaak Panksepp (born 1943) – Estonian-born American psychologist, psychobiologist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuroscience. Jesse Prinz – American philosopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousness James A. Russell – American psychologist who developed the circumplex model of affect Klaus Scherer (born 1943) – Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion Ronald de Sousa (born 1940) – English–Canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology. Jonathan Turner (born 1942) - American sociologist from the University of California, Riverside who is a general sociological theorist with specialty areas including the sociology of emotions, ethnic relations, social institutions, social stratification, and bio-sociology. Dominique Moïsi (born 1946) - Authored a book titled The Geopolitics of Emotion focusing on emotions related to globalization. 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Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual. New York: Anchor Books. Goffman, E. (1964/2013). Encounters: Two studies in the sociology of interactions. Mansfiled Centre, CT: Martino Publishing. Milne, C., & Otieno, T. (2007). Understanding engagement: Science demonstrations and emotional energy. Science Education, 91, 532-553. DOI 10.1002/sce Olitsky, S. (2007). Science learning, status and identity formation in an urban middle school. In W.-M. Roth & K. G. Tobin (Eds.), Science, learning, identity: Sociocultural and cultural-historical perspectives. (pp. 41-62). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense. Tobin, K., Ritchie, S. M., Oakley, J., Mergard, V., & Hudson, P. (2013). Relationships between emotional climate and the fluency of classroom interactions. Learning Environments Research, 16, 71-89. Zembylas, M. (2002). Constructing genealogies of teachers’ emotions in science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 79–103. 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ISBN 978-989-643-034-4 "On Emotion – an article from Manchester Gestalt Centre website". 123webpages.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-11-11. Fellous, Armony & LeDoux, 2002 Tao, Jianhua; Tieniu Tan (2005). "Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction" 3784. Springer. pp. 981–995. doi:10.1007/11573548. |chapter= ignored (help) "Affective Computing" MIT Technical Report #321 (Abstract), 1995 Kleine-Cosack, Christian (October 2006). "Recognition and Simulation of Emotions" (PDF). Archived from the original on May 28, 2008. Retrieved May 13, 2008. "The introduction of emotion to computer science was done by Pickard (sic) who created the field of affective computing." Diamond, David (December 2003). "The Love Machine; Building computers that care.". Wired. Retrieved May 13, 2008. "Rosalind Picard, a genial MIT professor, is the field's godmother; her 1997 book, Affective Computing, triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users." Cherry, Kendra. "v". Retrieved 30 April 2012. The Tomkins Institute. "Applied Studies in Motivation, Emotion, and Cognition". Retrieved 30 April 2012. Reisenzein , R. (2006). Cognition & emotion. Psychology Press, part of the Taylor & Francis Group, 20(7), 920-951. doi:10.1080/02699930600616445 Plutchik, R. (1982). A psychoevolutionary theory of emotions. Social Science Information, 21, 529. doi:10.1177/053901882021004003 Bibliography Denton, Derek (2006). The Primordial Emotions: The Dawning of Consciousness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920314-7. Fox, Elaine (2008). Emotion Science: An Integration of Cognitive and Neuroscientific Approaches. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-00517-4. Further reading Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee "Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions", International Journal on Humanistic Ideology, Vol. 3 No. 1, Spring–Summer 2010. Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Freitas-Magalhães, A. (Ed.). (2009). Emotional Expression: The Brain and The Face. Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4. Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007). The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. González, Ana Marta (2012). The Emotions and Cultural Analysis. Burlington, VT : Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4094-5317-8 Ekman, P. (1999). "Basic Emotions". In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:. Frijda, N.H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press Hochschild, A.R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feelings. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hogan, Patrick Colm. (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hordern, Joshua. (2013). Political Affections: Civic Participation and Moral Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199646813 LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J.E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge. Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and Body: Psychology of emotion and stress. New York: Norton. Nussbaum, Martha C. (2001) Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic. Ridley-Duff, R.J. (2010). Emotion, Seduction and Intimacy: Alternative Perspectives on Human Behaviour (Third Edition), Seattle: Libertary Editions Roberts, Robert. (2003). Emotions: An Essay in Aid of Moral Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scherer, K. (2005). What are emotions and how can they be measured?[dead link] Social Science Information Vol. 44, No. 4: 695–729. Solomon, R. (1993). The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. Zeki, S. & Romaya, J.P. (2008), "Neural correlates of hate", PloS one, vol. 3, no. 10, pp. 3556. Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience Dror Green (2011). "Emotional Training, the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world". Bulgaria: Books, Publishers and the Institute of Emotional Training. Goldie, Peter. (2007). "Emotion". Philosophy Compass, vol. 1, issue 6 External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Emotion Wikiversity has learning materials about Emotion Look up emotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Emotions. Online Demo: Emotion recognition from speech, University of Patras, Wire Communication Lab Facial Emotion Expression Lab CNX.ORG: The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts (free online book) Queen Mary Centre for the History of the Emotions Humaine Emotion-Research.net: The Humaine Portal: Research on Emotions and Human-Machine Interaction PhilosophyofMind.net: Philosophy of Emotions portal Swiss Center for Affective Sciences The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Theories of Emotion The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emotion University of Arizona: Salk Institute:cCC Center for the History of Emotions, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin

Aggressive Body Language Techniques > Using Body Language > Aggressive Body Language Body positions | Gestures | See also A significant cluster of body movements is used to signal aggression. This is actually quite useful as it is seldom a good idea to get into a fight, even for powerful people. Fighting can hurt you, even though you are pretty certain you will win. In addition, with adults, fighting is often socially unacceptable and aggression through words and body language is all that may ever happen. Threat Facial signals Much aggression can be shown in the face, from disapproving frowns and pursed lips to sneers and full snarls. The eyes can be used to stare and hold the gaze for long period. They may also squint, preventing the other person seeing where you are looking. Attack signals When somebody is about to attack, they give visual signal such as clenching of fists ready to strike and lowering and spreading of the body for stability. They are also likely to give anger signs such as redness of the face. Exposing oneself Exposing oneself to attack is also a form of aggression. It is saying 'Go on - I dare you. I will still win.' It can include not looking at the other person, crotch displays, relaxing the body, turning away and so on. Invasion Invading the space of the other person in some way is an act of aggression that is equivalent to one country invading another. False friendship Invasion is often done under the cloak of of familiarity, where you act as if you are being friendly and move into a space reserved for friends, but without being invited. This gives the other person a dilemma of whether to repel a 'friendly' advance or to accept dominance of the other. Approach When you go inside the comfort zone of others without permission, you are effectively invading their territory. The close you get, the greater your ability to have 'first strike', from which an opponent may not recover. Touching Touching the person is another form of invasion. Even touching social touch zones such as arm and back can be aggressive. Gestures Insulting gestures There are many, many gestures that have the primary intent of insulting the other person and hence inciting them to anger and a perhaps unwise battle. Single and double fingers pointed up, arm thrusts, chin tilts and so on are used, although many of these do vary across cultures (which can make for hazardous accidental movements when you are overseas). Many gestures are sexual in nature, indicating that the other person should go away and fornicate, that you (or someone else) are having sex with their partner, and so on. Mock attacks Gestures may include symbolic action that mimics actual attacks, including waving fingers (the beating baton), shaking fists, head-butts, leg-swinging and so on. This is saying 'Here is what I will do to you!' Physical items may be used as substitutes, for example banging of tables and doors or throwing . Again, this is saying 'This could be you!' Sudden movements All of these gestures may be done suddenly, signaling your level of aggression and testing the other person's reactions. Large gestures The size of gestures may also be used to signal levels of aggression, from simple finger movements to whole arm sweeps, sometimes even with exaggerated movements of the entire body. See also Power, Emotions, War game, Emphasis with body language, Dominant body language, Gesture types

Using Body Language Techniques > Using Body Language Message clusters | Core patterns | Parts-of-body language | Other notes | See also Body language is an important part of communication which can constitute 50% or more of what we are communicating. If you wish to communicate well, then it makes sense to understand how you can (and cannot) use your body to say what you mean. Message clusters Body language comes in clusters of signals and postures, depending on the internal emotions and mental states. Recognizing a whole cluster is thus far more reliable than trying to interpret individual elements. Aggressive Body Language: Showing physical threat. Assertive Body Language: Adult expression of desire. Attentive Body Language: Showing real interest. Bored Body Language: Just not being interested. Closed Body Language: Many reasons are closed. Confident Body Language: Appearing assured and comfortable. Deceptive Body Language: Seeking to cover up lying or other deception. Defensive Body Language: Protecting self from attack. Dominant Body Language: Dominating others. Emotional Body Language: Identifying feelings. Evaluating Body Language: Judging and deciding about something. Greeting Body Language: Meeting rituals. Open Body Language: Many reasons for being open. Power Body Language: Demonstrating one's power. Ready Body Language: Wanting to act and waiting for the trigger. Relaxed Body Language: Comfortable and unstressed. Romantic Body Language: Showing attraction to others. Sales Body Language: Using your body to sell. Submissive Body Language: Showing you are prepared to give in. Trustworthy Body Language: Showing you can be trusted. Core patterns A number of core patterns in body language can be identified that include clusters of movements: Crossing, Expanding, Moving away, Moving forward, Opening, Preening, Repeating, Shaping, Striking and Touching Parts-of-the-body language You can send signals with individual parts of the body as well as in concert. Here's details of the contributions of each part of the body. Head: Face, Cheek, Chin, Mouth, Lips, Teeth, Tongue, Nose, Eyes, Eyebrow, Forehead, Hair Arm: Elbow, Hand, Finger Torso: Neck, Shoulder, Chest, Back, Belly, Bottom, Hips Legs: Thigh, Knee, Foot Other notes Remember that body language varies greatly with people and especially with international cultures (so be very careful when applying Western understanding to Eastern non-verbal language). 5 Cs of Body Language: How to effectively understand body language. Body as Cue, Evidence, Persuasion: How we shape changes how we feel. Body Control: Can you control your body? Body Language Caveat: You can't control all of your muscles. So why bother? Emphasis with Body Language: Adding emphasis to what you are saying. Micro-expressions: Flashes of movement speak volumes. Social Distances: The space between us. Satir's Five Positions: Speaking positions. Touching: Using physical touch. Hugging: Close comfort and affection. There are about 75 pages of information in total in this section on body language. See also Non-Verbal Behavior, Understanding body language, Using Your Body

Facial expression From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009) Photographs from the 1862 book Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine by Guillaume Duchenne. Through electric stimulation, determined which muscles were responsible for different facial expressions. Charles Darwin would later republish some of these photographs in his own work on the subject, which compared facial expressions in humans to those in animals. A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the muscles beneath the skin of the face. These movements convey the emotional state of an individual to observers. Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication. They are a primary means of conveying social information between humans, but they also occur in most other mammals and some other animal species. Humans can adopt a facial expression voluntarily or involuntarily, and the neural mechanisms responsible for controlling the expression differ in each case. Voluntary facial expressions are often socially conditioned and follow a cortical route in the brain. Conversely, involuntary facial expressions are believed to be innate and follow a subcortical route in the brain. Facial recognition is often an emotional experience for the brain and the amygdala is highly involved in the recognition process. The eyes are often viewed as important features of facial expressions. Aspects such as blinking rate can be used to indicate whether or not a person is nervous or whether or not he or she is lying. Also, eye contact is considered an important aspect of interpersonal communication. However, there are cultural differences regarding the social propriety of maintaining eye contact or not. Beyond the accessory nature of facial expressions in spoken communication between people, they play a significant role in communication with sign language. Many phrases in sign language include facial expressions in the display. There is controversy surrounding the question of whether or not facial expressions are worldwide and universal displays among humans. Supporters of the Universality Hypothesis claim that many facial expressions are innate and have roots in evolutionary ancestors. Opponents of this view question the accuracy of the studies used to test this claim and instead believe that facial expressions are conditioned and that people view and understand facial expressions in large part from the social situations around them. Contents 1 Creation 1.1 Facial muscles 1.2 Neuronal pathways 2 Neural mechanisms in face perception 2.1 Gender and facial cues 3 Communication 3.1 Eye contact 3.2 Micro expressions 3.3 Sign languages 4 Universality hypothesis 4.1 Support 4.2 Criticism 4.3 Evolutionary significance of universality 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Creation Facial muscles Facial expressions are vital to social communication between humans. They are caused by the movement of muscles that connect to the skin and fascia in the face. These muscles move the skin, creating lines and folds and causing the movement of facial features, such as the mouth and eyebrows. These muscles develop from the second pharyngeal arch in the embryo. The temporalis, masseter, and internal and external pterygoid muscles, which are mainly used for chewing, have a minor effect on expression as well. These muscles develop from the first pharyngeal arch.[1] Neuronal pathways There are two brain pathways associated with facial expression; the first is voluntary expression. Voluntary expression travels from the primary motor cortex through the pyramidal tract, specifically the corticobulbar projections. The cortex is associated with display rules in emotion, which are social precepts that influence and modify expressions. Cortically related expressions are made consciously.[1] The second type of expression is emotional. These expressions originate from the extrapyramidal motor system, which involves subcortical nuclei. For this reason, genuine emotions are not associated with the cortex and are often displayed unconsciously. This is demonstrated in infants before the age of two; they display distress, disgust, interest, anger, contempt, surprise, and fear. Infants’ displays of these emotions indicate that they are not cortically related. Similarly, blind children also display emotions, proving that they are subconscious rather than learned. Other subcortical facial expressions include the “knit brow” during concentration, raised eyebrows when listening attentively, and short “punctuation” expressions to add emphasis during speech. People do not consciously realize that they are producing these expressions.[1] Neural mechanisms in face perception See also: Face perception The amygdala plays an important role in facial recognition. Functional imaging studies have found that when shown pictures of faces, there is a large increase in the activity of the amygdala. The amygdala receives visual information from the thalamus via the subcortical pathways.[2] The amygdala may also have a significant role in the recognition of fear and negative emotions. It is believed that the emotion disgust is recognized through activation of the insula and basal ganglia. The recognition of emotion may also utilize the occipitotemporal neocortex, orbitofrontal cortex and right frontoparietal cortices.[3] Gender and facial cues More than anything though, what shapes a child’s cognitive ability to detect facial expression is being exposed to it from the time of birth. The more an infant is exposed to different faces and expressions, the more able they are to recognize these emotions and then mimic them for themselves. Infants are exposed to an array of emotional expressions from birth, and evidence indicates that they imitate some facial expressions and gestures (e.g., tongue protrusion) as early as the first few days of life.[4][full citation needed] Communication Eye contact See also: Eye contact A person's face, especially their eyes, creates the most obvious and immediate cues that lead to the formation of impressions.[5] This article discusses eyes and facial expressions and the effect they have on interpersonal communication. A person's eyes reveal much about how they are feeling, or what they are thinking. Blink rate can reveal how nervous or at ease a person may be. Research by Boston College professor Joe Tecce suggests that stress levels are revealed by blink rates. He supports his data with statistics on the relation between the blink rates of presidential candidates and their success in their races. Tecce claims that the faster blinker in the presidential debates has lost every election since 1980.[6] Though Tecce's data is interesting, it is important to recognize that non-verbal communication is multi-channeled, and focusing on only one aspect is reckless. Nervousness can also be measured by examining each candidates' perspiration, eye contact and stiffness.[7] Eye contact is another major aspect of facial communication. Some have hypothesized that this is due to infancy, as humans are one of the few mammals who maintain regular eye contact with their mother while nursing.[8] Eye contact serves a variety of purposes. It regulates conversations, shows interest or involvement, and establishes a connection with others. Eye contact regulates conversational turn taking, communicates involvement and interest, manifests warmth, and establishes connections with others…[and] it can command attention, be flirtatious, or seem cold and intimidating… [it] invites conversation. Lack of eye contact is usually perceived to be rude or inattentive.[7] But different cultures have different rules for eye contact. Certain Asian cultures can perceive direct eye contact as a way to signal competitiveness, which in many situations may prove to be inappropriate. Others lower their eyes to signal respect, and similarly eye contact is avoided in Nigeria, and between men and women in Islam;[9] however, in western cultures this could be misinterpreted as lacking self-confidence. Even beyond the idea of eye contact, eyes communicate more data than a person even consciously expresses. Pupil dilation is a significant cue to a level of excitement, pleasure, or attraction. Dilated pupils indicate greater affection or attraction, while constricted pupils send a colder signal. Micro expressions Micro expressions are the facial expressions that last less than a second that can help to determine the true feelings or emotions of the sender in communication. The fundamental characteristics of a micro-expression, according to Ekman’s original definition, are involuntary leakage and fast speed.[10][full citation needed] These expressions have been gaining more attention over the years for many reasons. The show Lie To Me exhibits the art of watching the micro expressions of people and determining whether they are being truthful or not. Law enforcement can benefit from this practice to catch criminals. This is not something that is easy to do, as a University of San Francisco study shows that less than 1% of people are natural lie detectors who can detect micro expressions and lies without first being trained.[citation needed] It is unknown how this tiny demographic has learned such a useful skill,[clarification needed] and researchers are still trying to determine what qualities people may possess to make them successful. So far, researchers have not been able to find a technology that can accomplish the same lie-detecting skills as people who are natural lie detectors. However, it is possible for anyone with a computer to be formally trained in the art of detecting micro expressions.[citation needed] Cues that tip off lie-detectors can be through the mouth, eye movements, or even our eyebrows. Micro expressions have become increasingly studied over the years due to the possible help in detecting danger or someone's true, underlying emotions.[citation needed] Sign languages Facial expression is used in sign languages to convey specific meanings. In American Sign Language (ASL), for instance, raised eyebrows combined with a slightly forward head tilt indicate that what is being signed is a yes/no question. Lowered eyebrows are used for wh-word questions. Facial expression is also used in sign languages to show adverbs and adjectives such as distance or size: an open mouth, squinted eyes, and tilted back head indicate something far while the mouth pulled to one side and the cheek held toward the shoulder indicate something close, and puffed cheeks mean very large. It can also show the manner in which something is done, such as carelessly or routinely.[11] Some of these expressions, also called non-manual signs, are used similarly in different sign languages while others are different from one language to another. For example, the expression used for 'carelessly' in ASL means 'boring or unpleasant' in British Sign Language.[12] Universality hypothesis The universality hypothesis is the assumption that certain facial expressions are signals of specific emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust) that are recognized by people everywhere, regardless of culture or language. The evolutionary basis of these kinds of facial expressions can be traced back to Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Reviews of the universality hypothesis have been both supportive[13][14] and critical.[15][16] Support Ekman's work on facial expressions had its starting point in the work of psychologist Silvan Tomkins. Ekman showed that facial expressions of emotion are not culturally determined, but universal across human cultures. To demonstrate the universality hypothesis, Ekman tested the South Fore people of New Guinea, a pre-industrial culture that was isolated from the west. The Fore were told brief stories about emotional events (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust). After each story, they were asked to select the matching facial expression from an array of three faces.[17] The Fore selected the correct face on 64%-90% of trials but had difficulty distinguishing the fear face from the surprise face. Children selected from an array of only two faces, and their results were similar to the adults’. Subsequent cross-cultural studies found similar results.[18] Criticism Both sides of this debate agree that the face expresses emotion. The controversy surrounds the uncertainty about what specific emotional information is read from a facial expression. Opponents of the universality hypothesis believe that more general information is pieced together with other contextual information in order to determine how a person feels.[19] One argument against the evidence presented in support of the universality hypothesis is that the method typically used to demonstrate universality inflates recognition scores.[16] Although each factor may contribute only a small amount to the inflation, combined, they can produce exaggerated scores. The three main factors are the following: The universality hypothesis focuses on people's abilities to recognize spontaneous facial expressions as they occur naturally. However, the facial expressions used to test this hypothesis are posed. Studies of spontaneous facial expressions are rare and find that participants’ recognition of the expressions is lower than that of the corresponding posed expressions.[20][21] In most studies, participants are shown more than one facial expression (Ekman recommends six of each expression). However, people judge facial expressions relative to others that they have seen,[22] and participants who judge more than one facial expression have higher recognition rates than those who judge only one.[16] The response format that is most commonly used in emotion recognition studies is forced choice. In forced choice, for each facial expression, participants are asked to select their response from a short list of emotion labels. The forced choice method determines the emotion attributed to the facial expressions via the labels that are presented.[16] That is, participants will select the best match to the facial expression even if it is not the emotion label they would have provided spontaneously and even if they would not have labeled the expression as an emotion at all.[23] Evolutionary significance of universality Darwin argued that the expression of emotions has evolved in humans from animals, who would have used similar methods of expression. Darwin believed that expressions were unlearned and innate in human nature and were therefore evolutionarily significant for survival. Darwin obtained evidence of this through his research on different cultures and species and on infants.[24] Ekman found that people shared many similar facial expressions despite never having met previously before. He was successfully able to confirm Darwin’s initial hypothesis that expressions were indeed unlearned behaviors that develop independently from cultured expressions.[25] Cross-cultural studies had shown that there are similarities in the way emotions are expressed across diverse cultures, but studies have even shown that there are similarities between species in how emotions are expressed. Research has shown that chimpanzees are able to communicate many of the same facial expressions as humans through the complex movements of the facial muscles. In fact, the facial cues were so similar that Ekman’s Facial Action Coding System could be applied to the chimps in evaluating their expressions.[26] Of course, differences between the species' physical facial properties, such as white sclera and everted lips in chimps, would mean that some expressions could not be compared.[27] Similarly, Darwin observed that infants’ method of expression not only was similar to those of adults, but seemed to be instinctive, as they were able to display emotional expressions they had not themselves yet witnessed.[28] It is clear that facial morphology impacts expression recognition in important ways. Therefore, infant facial morphology may also serve some specific communicative function. These similarities in morphology and movement in emotional expression are important for the interpretation of emotions.[29] Darwin was particularly interested in the functions facial expression as evolutionarily important for survival. He looked at the functions of facial expression in terms of the utility of expression in the life on the animal and in terms of specific expressions in species. Darwin deduced that animals were communicating feelings of different emotional states with specific facial expressions. He further concluded that this communication was important for the survival of animals in group-dwelling species; the skill to effectively communicate or interpret another animal’s feelings and behaviors would be a principal trait in naturally fit species.[30] See also Upset over a candy dispute with another child, a boy displays an angry pout Affect display Bell's Palsy Computer processing of body language Emotion Emotion classification Facial Action Coding System, Paul Ekman Facial recognition system Laughter, Gelotology, Freitas-Magalhães Metacommunicative competence Thought Moments References Rinn, William E. (1984). "The Neuropsychology of Facial Expression: A Review of the Neurological and Psychological Mechanisms for Producing Facial Expressions". Psychological Bulletin (American Psychological Association, Inc.) 95 (1): 52–77. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.95.1.52. Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Physiology of behavior (10th ed. ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. pp. 386–389. ISBN 0205666272. Adolphs, Ralph (9 May 2002). "Neural systems for recognizing emotion". Current Opinion in Neurobiology 12 (2): 169. doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(02)00301-X. (Field, Woodson,Greenberg, & Cohen, 1982; Meltzoff & Moore, 1983) Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007). The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press "In the blink of an eye." (October 21, 1999). Newsweek. Rothwell, J. Dan. In the Company of Others: An Introduction to Communication. United States: McGraw-Hill, 2004. Spitz, Rene A., and Wolf, K. M. "The Smiling Response: A Contribution to the Ontogenesis of Social Relations." Genetic Psychology Monographs. 34 (August 1946). P. 57-125. Caring for Patients from Different Cultures, by Geri-Ann Galanti, p. 34 Ekman and Friesen 1969 Baker, Charlotte, and Dennis Cokely (1980). American Sign Language: A teacher's resource text on grammar and culture. Silver Spring, MD: T.J. Publishers. Sutton-Spence, Rachel, and Bencie Woll (1998). The linguistics of British Sign Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ekman, P.; W. V. Friesen; P. Ellsworth (1972). "Emotion in the human face: Guidelines for research and a review of findings.". New York: Permagon. Izard, C. E. (1971). "The face of emotion". New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Woodworth, R. S.; Schlosberg, H. (1954). Experimental Psychology. New York: Henry Holt. Russell, James A. (1994). Psychological Bulletin (American Psychological Association, Inc.) 115 (1): 102–141. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.102. Ekman, P.; W. V. Friesen (1971). "Constants across cultures in the face and emotion". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (17): 124–129. Ekman, P.; Friesen, W.V.; O'Sullivan, M.; et al (1987). "Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion". Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 53 (4): 712–717. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.712. Carroll, J. M.; J. A. Russell (1996). "Do facial expressions signal specific emotions? Judging emotion from the face in context". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (70): 205–218. Matsumoto, David; LeRoux, Jeff; Wilson-Cohn, Carida; et al (September 2000). "A New Test to Measure Emotion Recognition Ability: Matsumoto and Ekman's Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART)". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 24 (3): 179–209. Naab, P. J.; J. A. Russell (2007). "Judgments of emotion from spontaneous facial expressions of New Guineans". Emotion 7 (4): 736–744. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.4.736. Thayer, Stephen (1980). "The effect of expression sequence and expressor identity on judgments of the intensity of facial expression". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 5 (2): 71–79. doi:10.1007/bf00986510. Wagner, H. L. (2000). "The accessibility of the term "contempt" and the meaning of the unilateral lip curl". Cognition and Emotion 14: 689–710. doi:10.1080/02699930050117675. Ekman, edited by Paul (2006). Darwin and facial expression : a century of research in review. Cambridge, MA: Malor Books. p. 12. ISBN 188353688X. Carlson, Neil R. (2012). Physiology of behavior (11th ed. ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. p. 377. ISBN 0205239390. Vick, Sarah-Jane; Waller, Bridget M., Parr, Lisa A., Smith Pasqualini, Marcia C., Bard, Kim A. (15 December 2006). "A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 31 (1): 18. doi:10.1007/s10919-006-0017-z. PMC 3008553. PMID 21188285. Vick, Sarah-Jane; Waller, Bridget M., Parr, Lisa A., Smith Pasqualini, Marcia C., Bard, Kim A. (15 December 2006). "A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 31 (1): 16. doi:10.1007/s10919-006-0017-z. PMC 3008553. PMID 21188285. Russell, James (1994). "Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion From Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies". Psychological Bulletin 115: 102–141. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.102. PMID 8202574. Vick, Sarah-Jane; Waller, Bridget M., Parr, Lisa A., Smith Pasqualini, Marcia C., Bard, Kim A. (15 December 2006). "A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 31 (1): 17. doi:10.1007/s10919-006-0017-z. PMC 3008553. PMID 21188285. Ekman, edited by Paul (2006). Darwin and facial expression : a century of research in review. Cambridge, MA: Malor Books. pp. 12–14. ISBN 188353688X. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to: Facial expression Wikimedia Commons has media related to Facial expressions. The Naked Face, August 5, 2002. Annals of Psychology Facial Expressions Resources Page contains links to research concerning facial expressions Bell's Palsy information site Information for sufferer's of facial palsy/facial paralysis The Umeå University Database of Facial Expressions, October 12, 2012. Journal of Medical Internet Research The JAFFE Database of Facial Expressions Categories: Facial expressions Anatomical simulation Emotion

Body language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Body language (disambiguation). Body language refers to various forms of nonverbal communication, where in a person may reveal clues as to some unspoken intention or feeling through their physical behavior. These behaviors include (but are not limited to) facial expressions, body posture, gestures, eye movement, touch and the use of space. Body language exists in both animals and humans, but this article focuses on interpretations of human body language. It is also known as kinesics. Body language must not be confused with sign language, as sign languages are full languages like spoken languages and have their own complex grammar systems, as well as being able to exhibit the fundamental properties that exist in all languages.[1][2] Body language, on the other hand, does not have a grammar and must be interpreted broadly, instead of having an absolute meaning corresponding with a certain movement, so it is not a language like sign language,[3] and is simply termed as a "language" due to popular culture. In a community, there are agreed-upon interpretations of particular behavior. Interpretations may vary from country to country, or culture to culture. On this note, there is controversy on whether body language is universal. Body language, a subset of nonverbal communication, complements verbal communication in social interaction. In fact some researchers conclude that nonverbal communication accounts for the majority of information transmitted during interpersonal interactions.[4] It helps to establish the relationship between two people and regulates interaction, but can be ambiguous. Hence, it is crucial to accurately read body language to avoid misunderstanding in social interactions. Contents 1 Physical movement 1.1 Facial expression 1.2 Body postures 1.3 Gestures 1.4 Handshakes 1.5 Other types of physical movements 2 Other subcategories of body language 2.1 Oculesics 2.2 Haptics 2.3 Proxemics 3 Tone of voice 4 Universal vs. culture-specific body language 5 Applications 5.1 Instructional teaching 5.1.1 Second-language acquisition 5.1.2 Enhancing teaching 5.2 Detecting deceit 5.2.1 Law enforcement 5.2.2 Poker 6 Kinesics 7 See also 8 References Physical movement Facial expression Facial expression is integral when expressing emotions through the body. Combinations of eyes, eyebrow, lips and cheek movements help form different moods of an individual (e.g. happy, sad, depressed, angry, etc.).[5] A few studies show that facial expression and bodily expression (i.e. body language) are congruent when interpreting emotions.[6][7] Behavioural experiments have also shown that recognition of facial expression is influenced by perceived bodily expression. This means that the brain processes the other's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.[6] Subjects in these studies showed accuracy in judging emotions based on facial expression. This is because the face and the body are normally seen together in their natural proportions and the emotional signals from the face and body are well integrated. Body postures Emotions can also be detected through body postures. Research has shown that body postures are more accurately recognised when an emotion is compared with a different or neutral emotion.[8] For example, a person feeling angry would portray dominance over the other, and his/her posture displays approach tendencies. Comparing this to a person feeling fearful: he/she would feel weak, submissive and his/her posture would display avoidance tendencies,[8] the opposite of an angry person. Sitting or standing postures also indicate one’s emotions. A person sitting till the back of his/her chair, leans forward with his/her head nodding along with the discussion implies that he/she is open, relaxed and generally ready to listen. On the other hand, a person who has his/her legs and arms crossed with the foot kicking slightly implies that he/she is feeling impatient and emotionally detached from the discussion.[5] In a standing discussion, a person stands with arms akimbo with feet pointed towards the speaker could suggest that he/she is attentive and is interested in the conversation. However, a small difference in this posture could mean a lot. For example, if the same person has his/her leg crossed over the other, and places his/her entire balance on one leg, this suggests a more casual attitude.[5] Gestures Gestures are movements made with body parts (e.g. hands, arms, fingers, head, legs) and they may be voluntary or involuntary.[5] Arm gestures can be interpreted in several ways. In a discussion, when one stands or sits with folded arms, this is normally not a welcoming gesture. It could mean that he/she has a closed mind and is most likely unwilling to listen to the speaker’s viewpoint. Another type of arm gesture also includes an arm crossed over the other, demonstrating insecurity and a lack of confidence.[5] Hand gestures often signify the state of well-being of the person making them. Relaxed hands indicate confidence and self-assurance, while clenched hands may be interpreted as signs of stress or anger. If a person is wringing his/her hands, this demonstrates nervousness and anxiety.[5] Finger gestures are also commonly used to exemplify one’s speech as well as denote the state of well-being of the person making them. In certain cultures, pointing using one’s index finger is deemed acceptable. However, pointing at a person may be viewed as aggressive in other cultures - for example, people who share Hindu beliefs consider finger pointing offensive. Instead, they point with their thumbs.[9] Likewise, the thumbs up gesture could show “OK” or “good” in countries like the US, France and Germany. But this same gesture is insulting in other countries like Iran, Bangladesh and Thailand, where it is the equivalent of showing the middle finger in the US.[9] Handshakes Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and are commonly done on meeting, greeting, offering congratulations or after the completion of an agreement. They usually indicate the level of confidence and emotion level in people.[5] Studies have also categorised several handshake styles,[9] e.g. the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc. Handshakes are popular in the US and are appropriate for use between men and women. However, in Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing their hands as if praying. Other types of physical movements Covering one’s mouth suggests suppression of feeling and perhaps uncertainty. This could also mean that he/she is thinking hard and may be unsure of what to say next.[5] Other subcategories of body language Oculesics Main article: Oculesics Oculesics, a subcategory of body language, is the study of eye movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal communication. As a social or behavioral science, oculesics is a form of nonverbal communication focusing on deriving meaning from eye behavior.[10] It is also crucial to note that Oculesics is culturally dependent. For example, in traditional Anglo-Saxon culture, avoiding eye contact usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness.[11] However, in the Latino culture, direct or prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the individual with whom you are speaking or that you have a romantic interest in the person.[11] Haptics Main article: Haptic communication Haptics, a subcategory of Body Language, is the study of touching and how it is used in communication.[12] As such, handshakes, holding hands, kissing, back slapping, high fives, brushing up against someone or pats all have meaning.[12] Based on the Body Language Project,[12] touching is the most developed sense at birth and formulates our initial views of the world. Touching can be used to sooth, for amusement during play, to flirt, to expressing power and maintaining bonds between people such as with baby and mother. Touching can carry distinct emotions and also show the intensity of those emotions. Touch absent of other cues can signal anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude and sympathy depending on the length and type of touching that is performed. Many factors also contribute to the meaning of touching such as the length of the touch and location on the body in which the touching takes place. Research has also shown that people can accurately decode distinct emotions by merely watching others communicate via touch.[13] Heslin outlines five haptic categories:[14] Functional/professional which expresses task-orientation Donald Walton[15] stated in his book that touching is the ultimate expression of closeness or confidence between two people, but not seen often in business or formal relationships. Touching stresses how special the message is that is being sent by the initiator. "If a word of praise is accompanied by a touch on the shoulder, that’s the gold star on the ribbon," wrote Walton.[15] Social/polite which expresses ritual interaction A study by Jones and Yarbrough[16] regarded communication with touch as the most intimate and involving form which helps people to keep good relationships with others. For example, Jones and Yarbrough explained that strategic touching is a series of touching usually with an ulterior or hidden motive thus making them seem to be using touch as a game to get someone to do something for them.[16] Friendship/warmth which expresses idiosyncratic relationship Love/intimacy which expresses emotional attachment Public touch can serve as a ‘tie sign’ that shows others that your partner is “taken”.[17] When a couple is holding hands, putting their arms around each other, this is a ‘tie sign’ showing others that they are together. The use of ‘tie signs’ are used more often by couples in the dating and courtship stages than between their married counterparts according to Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall.[18] Sexual/arousal which expresses sexual intent. The amount of touching that occurs within a culture is also culturally dependent. Proxemics Main article: Proxemics Diagram of Edward T. Hall's personal reaction bubbles (1966), showing radius in feet Another notable area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial relationships, which is also known as Proxemics. Introduced by Edward T. Hall in 1966, proxemics is the study of measurable distances between people as they interact with one another.[19] In the book, Body Language,[20] Julius Fast mentioned that the signals that we send or receive to others through body language are reactions to others’ invasions of our personal territories, which links Proxemics an important part of Body Language. Hall also came up with four distinct zones in which most men operate:[19] Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering Close phase – less than 6 inches (15 cm) Far phase – 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm) Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members Close phase – 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm) Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 122 cm) Social distance for interactions among acquaintances Close phase – 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m) Far phase – 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m) Public Distance used for public speaking Close phase – 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m) Far phase – 25 feet (7.6 m) or more. In addition to physical distance, the level of intimacy between conversants can be determined by "socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or the "angle formed by the axis of the conversants' shoulders".[21] Changing the distance between two people can convey a desire for intimacy, declare a lack of interest, or increase/decrease domination.[22] It can also influence the body language that is used. For example, when people talk they like to face each other. If forced to sit side by side, their body language will try to compensate for this lack of eye-to-eye contact by leaning in shoulder-to-shoulder.[22] It is important to note that as with other types of Body Language, proximity range varies with culture. Hall suggested that "physical contact between two people ... can be perfectly correct in one culture, and absolutely taboo in another".[23] In Latin America, people who may be complete strangers may engage in very close contact. They often greet one another by kissing on the cheeks. North Americans, on the other hand, prefer to shake hands. While they have made some physical contact with the shaking of the hand, they still maintain a certain amount of physical space between the other person.[24] Tone of voice Tone of voice is a combination of spoken language and body language. The manner in which something is said can affect how it should be interpreted. Shouting, smiling, irony and so on may add a layer of meaning which is neither pure body language nor speech. Universal vs. culture-specific body language Scholars have long debated on whether body language, particularly facial expressions, are universally understood. In Darwin’s (1872) evolutionary theory, he postulated that facial expressions of emotion are inherited.[25] On the other hand, scholars have questioned if culture influences one’s bodily expression of emotions. Broadly, the theories can be categorized into two models: Cultural Equivalence Model The Cultural Equivalence Model predicts that “individuals should be equally accurate in understanding the emotions of in-group and out-group members” (Soto & Levenson, 2009). This model is rooted in Darwin’s (1872) evolutionary theory, where he noted that both humans and animals share similar postural expressions of emotions such as anger/aggression, happiness, and fear.[26] These similarities support the evolution argument that social animals (including humans) have a natural ability to relay emotional signals with one another, a notion shared by several academics (Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974; Linnankoski, Laasko, Aul-anko, & Leinonen, 1994). Where Darwin notes similarity in expression among animals and humans, the Cultural Equivalence Model notes similarity in expression across cultures in humans, even though they may be completely different. One of the strongest pieces of evidence that supports this model was a study conducted by Ekman and Friesen (1971), where members of a preliterate tribe in Papua New Guinea reliably recognized the facial expressions of individuals from the United States. Culturally isolated and with no exposure to US media, there was no possibility of cross-cultural transmission to the Papuan tribesmen.[27] Cultural Advantage Model On the other hand, the Cultural Advantage Model predicts that individuals of the same race “process the visual characteristics more accurately and efficiently than other-race faces”.[28] Other factors that increase accurate interpretation include familiarity with nonverbal accents.[29] There are numerous studies that support both the Cultural Equivalence Model and the Cultural Advantage Model, but reviewing the literature indicates that there is a general consensus that 7 emotions are universally recognized, regardless of cultural background: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, contempt, disgust, and sadness.[30] Recently, scholars have shown that the expressions of pride and shame are universal. Tracy and Robins (2008) concluded that the expression of pride includes an expanded posture of the body with the head tilted back, with a low-intensity face and a non-Duchenne smile (raising the corner of the mouth). The expression of shame includes the hiding of the face, either by turning it down or covering it with the hands.[27] Applications Fundamentally, body language is seemed as an involuntary and unconscious phenomena that adds to the process of communication. Despite that, there have been certain areas where the conscious harnessing of body language - both in action and comprehension - have been useful. The use of body language has also seen an increase in application and use commercially, with large volumes of books and guides published designed to teach people how to be conscious of body language, and how to use it to benefit them in certain scenarios.[20] The use of body language can be seen in a wide variety of fields. Body language has seen application in instructional teaching in areas such as second-language acquisition[31] and also to enhance the teaching of subjects like mathematics. A related use of body language is as a substitution to verbal language to people who lack the ability to use that, be it because of deafness or aphasia. Body language has also been applied in the process of detecting deceit through micro-expressions, both in law enforcement and even in the world of poker.[32] Instructional teaching Second-language acquisition The importance of body language in second-language acquisition was inspired by the fact that to successfully learn a language is to achieve discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competencies.[33] Sociolinguistic competence includes understanding the body language that aids the use of a particular language. This is usually also highly culturally influenced. As such, a conscious ability to recognize and even perform this sort of body language is necessary to achieve fluency in a language beyond the discourse level. The importance of body language to verbal language use is the need to eliminate ambiguity and redundancy in comprehension.[33] Pennycook (1985) suggests to limit the use of non-visual materials to facilitate the teaching of a second language to improve this aspect of communication. He calls this being not just bilingual but also 'bi-kinesic'.[34] Enhancing teaching Body language can be a useful aid not only in teaching a second language, but also in other areas. The idea behind using it is as a nonlinguistic input.[35] It can be used to guide, hint, or urge a student towards the right answer. This is usually paired off with other verbal methods of guiding the student, be it through confirmation checks or modified language use. Tai[36] in his 2014 paper provides a list of three main characteristic of body language and how they influence teaching. The features are intuition, communication, and suggestion. The intuitive feature of body language used in teaching is the exemplification of the language, especially individual words, through the use of matching body language. For example, when teaching about the word "cry", teachers can imitate a crying person. This enables a deeper impression which is able to lead to greater understanding of the particular word.[36] The communicative feature is the ability of body language to create an environment and atmosphere that is able to facilitate effective learning. A holistic environment is more productive for learning and the acquisition for new knowledge.[36] The suggestive feature of body language uses body language as a tool to create opportunities for the students to gain additional information about a particular concept or word through pairing it with the body language itself.[36] Detecting deceit Law enforcement Body language has seen use in the area of law enforcement. The relevance of body language in this area can be seen in the numerous Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Law Enforcement Bulletins[37][38] that have included it in their articles. The application of body language in law enforcement goes both ways. Members of law enforcement can use body language to catch unspoken cues by suspects or even victims, this enables a more calculated and more comprehensive judgement of people. The other side of body language is that of the investigators' themselves. The body language of the members of law enforcement might influence the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.[39] Poker Main article: Poker The game of poker does not consist only of the actual ability of playing the game, but also the competence of reading and analyzing the body language of the opponents. A key component of poker is to be able to "cheat" the opponents. To spot these cheats, players must have the ability to spot the individual "ticks" of their opponents. Players also have to look out for signs that an opponent is doing well. Kinesics Main article: Kinesics Kinesics is the study and interpretation of nonverbal communication related to the movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole;[40] in layman's terms, it is the study of body language. However, Ray Birdwhistell, who is considered the founder of this area of study, never used the term body language, and did not consider it appropriate. He argued that what can be conveyed with the body does not meet the linguist's definition of language.[3] Birdwhistell pointed out that "human gestures differ from those of other animals in that they are polysemic, that they can be interpreted to have many different meanings depending on the communicative context in which they are produced”. And, he “resisted the idea that “body language” could be deciphered in some absolute fashion". He also indicated that "every body movement must be interpreted broadly and in conjunction with every other element in communication".[3] Despite that, body language is still more widely used than kinesics. See also Paul Ekman Facial Action Coding System References Klima, Edward S.; & Bellugi, Ursula. (1979). The signs of language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-80795-2. Sandler, Wendy; & Lillo-Martin, Diane. (2006). Sign Language and Linguistic Universals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Barfield, T (1997). 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