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Body language
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A study in body language.
Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send and interpret such signals almost entirely subconsciously.
John Borg attests that human communication consists of 93 percent body language and paralinguistic cues, while only 7% of communication consists of words themselves[1]; however, Albert Mehrabian, the researcher whose 1960s work is the source of these statistics, has stated that this is a misunderstanding of the findings[2] (see Misinterpretation of Mehrabian's rule). Others assert that "Research has suggested that between 60 and 70 percent of all meaning is derived from nonverbal behavior."[3]
Body language may provide clues as to the attitude or state of mind of a person. For example, it may indicate aggression, attentiveness, boredom, relaxed state, pleasure, amusement, and intoxication, among many other cues.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Understanding body language
o 1.1 Physical expression
* 2 How prevalent is non-verbal communication in humans?
* 3 Body language and space
* 4 Unintentional gestures
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links
[edit] Understanding body language
The technique of "reading" people is used frequently. For example, the idea of mirroring body language to put people at ease is commonly used in interviews. Mirroring the body language of someone else indicates that they are understood.[citation needed] It is important to note that while some indicators of emotion (e.g. smiling/laughing when happy, frowning/crying when sad) are largely universal[citation needed][4], however in the 1990s Ekman expanded his list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions not all of which are encoded in facial muscles.[13] The newly included emotions are: 1. Amusement 2. Contempt 3. Contentment 4. Embarrassment 5. Excitement 6. Guilt 7. Pride in achievement 8. Relief 9. Satisfaction 10. Sensory pleasure 11. Shame
Body language signals may have a goal other than communication. Both people would keep this in mind. Observers limit the weight they place on non-verbal cues. Signalers clarify their signals to indicate the biological origin of their actions. Examples would include yawning (sleepiness), showing lack of interest (sexual interest/survival interest), attempts to change the topic (fight or flight drivers).
[edit] Physical expression
Physical expressions like waving, pointing, touching and slouching are all forms of nonverbal communication. The study of body movement and expression is known as kinesics. Humans move their bodies when communicating because, as research has shown[citation needed], it helps "ease the mental effort when communication is difficult." Physical expressions reveal many things about the person using them. For example, gestures can emphasize a point or relay a message, posture can reveal boredom or great interest, and touch can convey encouragement or caution.[5]
* One of the most basic and powerful body-language signals is when a person crosses his or her arms across the chest.[citation needed] This can indicate that a person is putting up an unconscious barrier between themselves and others. It can also indicate that the person's arms are cold, which would be clarified by rubbing the arms or huddling. When the overall situation is amicable, it can mean that a person is thinking deeply about what is being discussed. But in a serious or confrontational situation, it can mean that a person is expressing opposition. This is especially so if the person is leaning away from the speaker. A harsh or blank facial expression often indicates outright hostility.
* Consistent eye contact can indicate that a person is thinking positively of what the speaker is saying. It can also mean that the other person doesn't trust the speaker enough to "take their eyes off" the speaker. Lack of eye contact can indicate negativity. On the other hand, individuals with anxiety disorders are often unable to make eye contact without discomfort. Eye contact can also be a secondary and misleading gesture because cultural norms about it vary widely. If a person is looking at you, but is making the arms-across-chest signal, the eye contact could be indicative that something is bothering the person, and that he wants to talk about it. Or if while making direct eye contact, a person is fiddling with something, even while directly looking at you, it could indicate the attention is elsewhere. Also, there are three standard areas that a person will look which represent different states of being. If the person looks from one eye to the other than to the forehead, it is a sign that they are taking an authoritative position. If they move from one eye to the other than to the nose, that signals that they are engaging in what they consider to be a "level conversation" with neither party holding superiority. The last case is from one eye to the other and then down to the lips. This is a strong indication of romantic feelings.[citation needed]
* Disbelief is often indicated by averted gaze, or by touching the ear or scratching the chin. When a person is not being convinced by what someone is saying, the attention invariably wanders, and the eyes will stare away for an extended period.[citation needed]
* Boredom is indicated by the head tilting to one side, or by the eyes looking straight at the speaker but becoming slightly unfocused. A head tilt may also indicate a sore neck or Amblyopia, and unfocused eyes may indicate ocular problems in the listener.[citation needed]
* Interest can be indicated through posture or extended eye contact, such as standing and listening properly.[citation needed]
* Deceit or the act of withholding information can sometimes be indicated by touching the face during conversation. Excessive blinking is a well-known indicator of someone who is lying. Recently[when?], evidence has surfaced that the absence of blinking can also represent lying as a more reliable factor than excessive blinking. [1]
Some people use and understand body language differently, or not at all.[citation needed] Interpreting their gestures and facial expressions (or lack thereof) in the context of normal body language usually leads to misunderstandings and misinterpretations (especially if body language is given priority over spoken language). It should also be stated that people from different cultures can interpret body language in different ways.
[edit] How prevalent is non-verbal communication in humans?
Some researchers[who?] put the level of nonverbal communication as high as 80 percent of all communication when it could be at around 50-65 percent. Different studies have found differing amounts, with some studies showing that facial communication is believed 4.3 times more often than verbal meaning, and another finding that verbal communication in a flat tone is 4 times more likely to be understood than a pure facial expression.[citation needed] Albert Mehrabian is noted for finding a 7%-38%-55% rule, supposedly denoting how much communication was conferred by words, tone, and body language. However he was only referring to cases of expressing feelings or attitudes.
[edit] Body language and space
Main article: Personal space
Interpersonal space refers to the psychological "bubble" that we can imagine exists when someone is standing too close to us. Research has revealed that there are four different zones of interpersonal space.
* The first zone is called intimate distance and ranges from touching to about eighteen inches (46 cm) apart. Intimate distance is the space around us that we reserve for lovers, children, as well as close family members and friends, and also pet animals.
* The second zone is called personal distance and begins about an arm's length away; starting around eighteen inches (46 cm) from our person and ending about four feet (122 cm) away. We use personal distance in conversations with friends, to chat with associates, and in group discussions.
* The third zone of interpersonal space is called social distance and is the area that ranges from four to eight feet (1.2 m - 2.4 m) away from you. Social distance is reserved for strangers, newly formed groups, and new acquaintances.
* The fourth identified zone of space is public distance and includes anything more than eight feet (2.4 m) away from you. This zone is used for speeches, lectures, and theater; essentially, public distance is that range reserved for larger audiences.[6]
[edit] Unintentional gestures
Recently[when?], there has been huge interest in studying human behavioral clues that could be useful for developing an interactive and adaptive human-machine system. Unintentional human gestures such as making an eye rub, a chin rest, a lip touch, a nose itch, a head scratch, an ear scratch, crossing arms, and a finger lock have been found conveying some useful information in specific context. Some researchers[who?] have tried to extract such gestures in a specific context of educational applications.[citation needed] In poker games, such gestures are referred to as "tells" and are useful to players for detecting deception or behavioral patterns in an opponent(s).
[edit] See also
* Posture (psychology)
[edit] References
1. ^ Borg, John. Body Language: 7 Easy Lessons to Master the Silent Language. Prentice Hall life, 2008
2. ^ More or Less. BBC Radio 4. 13:30–14:00.
3. ^ Engleberg,Isa N. Working in Groups: Communication Principles and Strategies. My Communication Kit Series, 2006. page 133
4. ^ see also wiki on "Lie to Me"
5. ^ Engleberg,Isa N. Working in Groups: Communication Principles and Strategies. My Communication Kit Series, 2006. page 137
6. ^ Engleberg,Isa N. Working in Groups: Communication Principles and Strategies. My Communication Kit Series, 2006. page 140-141
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Body language
* Body language is of particular importance in large groups by Tarnow, E. published 1997
* Hess Pupil Dilation Findings: Sex or Novelty? Social Behavior and Personality , 1998 by Aboyoun, Darren C, Dabbs, James M Jr
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_language"
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Nonverbal communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Non-verbal communication)
Jump to: navigation, search
Non verbal Communication is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. i.e., language is not the only source of communication, there are other means also. Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch (Haptic communication), by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. Meaning can also be communicated through object or artifacts (such as clothing, hairstyles or architecture), symbols, and icons (or graphics). Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Dance is also regarded as a form of nonverbal communication. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page.
However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.[1]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Verbal vs. oral communication
* 2 History
* 3 Arbitrariness
* 4 Characteristics of nonverbal communication
* 5 Clothing and bodily characteristics
* 6 Physical environment
o 6.1 Proxemics: physical space in communication
o 6.2 Chronemics: time in communication
+ 6.2.1 Monochronic Time
+ 6.2.2 Polychronic Time
* 7 Movement and body position
o 7.1 Kinesics
o 7.2 Posture
o 7.3 Gesture
o 7.4 Haptics: touching in communication
* 8 Eye gaze
* 9 Paralanguage: nonverbal cues of the voice
* 10 Functions of nonverbal communication
o 10.1 Concealing deception
* 11 The relation between verbal and nonverbal communication
o 11.1 The relative importance of verbal and nonverbal communication
o 11.2 Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication
+ 11.2.1 Repeating
+ 11.2.2 Conflicting
+ 11.2.3 Complementing
+ 11.2.4 Substituting
+ 11.2.5 Regulating
+ 11.2.6 Accenting/Moderating
* 12 Dance and nonverbal communication
* 13 Clinical studies of nonverbal communication
* 14 Difficulties with nonverbal communication
* 15 Footnotes
* 16 See also
* 17 References
* 18 External links
[edit] Verbal vs. oral communication
Scholars in this field usually use a strict sense of the term "verbal", meaning "of or concerned with words", and do not use "verbal communication" as a synonym for oral or spoken communication. Thus, vocal sounds that are not considered to be words, such as a grunt, or singing a wordless note, are nonverbal. Sign languages and writing are generally understood as forms of verbal communication, as both make use of words — although like speech, both may contain paralinguistic elements and often occur alongside nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication can occur through any sensory channel — sight, sound, smell, touch or taste. Nonverbal communication is important as:
"When we speak (or listen), our attention is focused on words rather than body language. But our judgment includes both. An audience is simultaneously processing both verbal and nonverbal cues. Body movements are not usually positive or negative in and of themselves; rather, the situation and the message will determine the appraisal." (Givens, 2000, p. 4)
[edit] History
The first scientific study of nonverbal communication was Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). He argued that all mammals show emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across a number of fields, including , linguistics, semiotics and social psychology.
[edit] Arbitrariness
While much nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols, which differ from culture to culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be universally understood. Paul Ekman's influential 1960s studies of facial expression determined that expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise are universal.
[edit] Characteristics of nonverbal communication
1. Non-verbal messages primarily communicate emotions, attitudes.
2. Non-verbal cues substitute for, contradict, emphasize or regulate verbal message.
3. Non-verbal cues are often ambiguous.
4. Non-verbal cues are continuous.
5. Non-verbal cues are more reliable.
6. Non-verbal cues are culture bound.
[edit] Clothing and bodily characteristics
Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative purpose. This man's clothes identify him as male and a police officer; his badges and shoulder sleeve insignia give information about his job and rank.
Elements such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send nonverbal messages during interaction. For example, a study[2], carried out in Vienna, Austria, of the clothing worn by women attending discothèques showed that in certain groups of women (especially women who were in town without their partners) motivation for sex, and levels of sexual hormones, were correlated with aspects of the clothing, especially the amount of skin displayed, and the presence of sheer clothing, e.g. at the arms. Thus, to some degree, clothing sent signals about interest in courtship.
Research into height has generally found that taller people are perceived as being more impressive. Melamed & Bozionelos (1992) studied a sample of managers in the UK and found that height was a key factor affecting who was promoted. Often people try to make themselves taller, for example, standing on a platform, when they want to make more of an impact with their speaking.
[edit] Physical environment
Environmental factors such as furniture, architectural style, interior decorating, lighting conditions, colors, temperature, noise, and music affect the behavior of communicators during interaction. The furniture itself can be seen as a nonverbal message[1]
[edit] Proxemics: physical space in communication
Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures[3] and different settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.
The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior regarding personal space.[4] Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such territories:
1. Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the owner’s permission.
2. Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no “right” to occupancy, but people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example, someone may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone else sits there.
3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a limited claim over that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to take that space.
4. Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk around the group rather than disturb it.
[edit] Chronemics: time in communication
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the stage for communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and willingness to wait, the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of nonverbal messages. Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey (1988) identified 2 dominant time patterns:
[edit] Monochronic Time
A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is scheduled, arranged and managed.
The United States is considered a monochronic society. This perception of time is learned and rooted in the Industrial Revolution, where "factory life required the labor force to be on hand and in place at an appointed hour" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 238). For Americans, time is a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. "We buy time, save time, spend time and make time. Our time can be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and even milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we are planning for the future. We have schedules that we must follow: appointments that we must go to at a certain time, classes that start and end at certain times, work schedules that start and end at certain times, and even our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.” [1]
As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote regarding the American’s viewpoint of time in the business world, “the schedule is sacred.” Hall says that for monochronic cultures, such as the American culture, “time is tangible” and viewed as a commodity where “time is money” or “time is wasted.” The result of this perspective is that Americans and other monochronic cultures, such as the German and Swiss, place a paramount value on schedules, tasks and “getting the job done.” These cultures are committed to regimented schedules and may view those who do not subscribe to the same perception of time as disrespectful.
Monochronic cultures include Germany, Canada, Switzerland, United States, and Scandinavia.
[edit] Polychronic Time
A polychronic time system is a system where several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling time. Unlike European-Americans and most northern and western European cultures, Native American, Latin American and Arabic cultures use the polychronic system of time.
These cultures are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes, polychronic cultures are deeply steeped in tradition rather than in tasks—a clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that "Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary divisions of the clock face have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, and the calendar of religious festivities" (Cohen, 1997, p. 34).
Instead, their culture is more focused on relationships, rather than watching the clock. They have no problem being “late” for an event if they are with family or friends, because the relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars and schedules. Rather, “cultures that use the polychronic time system often schedule multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on schedule is an impossibility.” [2]
Polychronic cultures include Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Mexico, Philippines, India, and many in Africa.
[edit] Movement and body position
[edit] Kinesics
Information about the relationship and affect of these two skaters is communicated by their body posture, eye gaze and physical contact.
The term "Kinesics" was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of Birdwhistell's work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. The study was joined by several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson.
[edit] Posture
Posture can be used to determine a participant’s degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator.[5] Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person’s left side is parallel to the other person’s right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or a decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment during communication.[6] Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean, body orientation, arm position, and body openness.
[edit] Gesture
A wink is a type of gesture.
A gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express meaning. They may be articulated with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling ones' eyes. The boundary between language and gesture, or verbal and nonverbal communication, can be hard to identify.
Although the study of gesture is still in its infancy, some broad categories of gestures have been identified by researchers. The most familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the hand-wave used in the US for "hello" and "goodbye". A single emblematic gesture can have a very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive.[9] For a list of emblematic gestures, see list of gestures.
Another broad category of gestures comprises those gestures used spontaneously when we speak. These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. The so-called beat gestures are used in conjunction with speech and keep time with the rhythm of speech to emphasize certain words or phrases. These types of gestures are integrally connected to speech and thought processes.[10] Other spontaneous gestures used when we speak are more contentful and may echo or elaborate the meaning of the co-occurring speech.For example, a gesture that depicts the act of throwing may be synchronous with the utterance, "He threw the ball right into the window."[10]
Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality. They should not be confused with finger spelling, in which a set of emblematic gestures are used to represent a written alphabet.
Gestures can also be categorized as either speech-independent or speech-related. Speech-independent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct verbal translation.[7] A wave hello or a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures. Speech related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is used to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech related gestures are intended to provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion.
Gestures such as Mudra (Sanskrit) encode sophisticated information accessible to initiates that are privy to the subtlety of elements encoded in their tradition.
[edit] Haptics: touching in communication
A high five is an example of communicative touch.
Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching.[7] These behaviors are referred to as "adapter" or "tells" and may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator. The meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the context of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of touch.[8]
Humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of non-verbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are: smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are known to be high contact cultures.
Haptic communication is the means by which people and other animals communicate via touching. Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information about surfaces and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships, and vital in conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing) and platonic (such as hugging or tickling).
Touch is the earliest sense to develop in the fetus. The development of an infant's haptic senses and how it relates to the development of the other senses such as vision has been the target of much research. Human babies have been observed to have enormous difficulty surviving if they do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and hearing. Babies who can perceive through touch, even without sight and hearing, tend to fare much better. Touch can be thought of as a basic sense in that most life forms have a response to being touched, while only a subset have sight and hearing.
In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly but cling strongly to their mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus monkeys and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother", a wire feeding apparatus wrapped in softer terry cloth which provided a level of tactile stimulation and comfort, were considerably more emotionally stable as adults than those with a mere wire mother.(Harlow,1958)
Touching is treated differently from one country to another and socially acceptable levels of touching vary from one culture to another (Remland, 2009). In the Thai culture, for example, touching someone's head may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of people communicating and found that in England (8%), France (5%) and the Netherlands (4%) touching was rare compared to their Italian (14%) and Greek (12.5%) sample.[9]
Striking, pushing, pulling, pinching, kicking, strangling and hand-to-hand fighting are forms of touch in the context of physical abuse. In a sentence like "I never touched him/her" or "Don't you dare to touch him/her" the term touch may be meant as euphemism for either physical abuse or sexual touching. To 'touch oneself' is a euphemism for masturbation.
The word touch has many other metaphorical uses. One can be emotionally touched, referring to an action or object that evokes an emotional response. To say "I was touched by your letter" implies the reader felt a strong emotion when reading it. Usually does not include anger, disgust or other forms of emotional rejection unless used in a sarcastic manner.
Stoeltje (2003) wrote about how Americans are ‘losing touch’ with this important communication skill. During a study conducted by University of Miami School of Medicine, Touch Research Institutes, American children were said to be more aggressive than their French counterparts while playing at a playground. It was noted that French women touched their children more
[edit] Eye gaze
The study of the role of eyes in nonverbal communication is sometimes referred to as "oculesics". Eye contact can indicate interest, attention, and involvement. Studies have found that people use their eyes to indicate their interest and with more than the frequently recognized actions of winking and slight movement of the eyebrows. Eye contact is an event when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time. It is a form of nonverbal communication and has a large influence on social behavior. Frequency and interpretation of eye contact vary between cultures and species. Eye aversion is the avoidance of eye contact. Eye contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so, probe each other's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. [8] Gaze comprises the actions of looking while talking, looking while listening, amount of gaze, and frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate.[10]
[edit] Paralanguage: nonverbal cues of the voice
Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalics) is the study of nonverbal cues of the voice. Various acoustic properties of speech such as tone, pitch and accent, collectively known as prosody, can all give off nonverbal cues. Paralanguage may change the meaning of words.
The linguist George L. Trager developed a classification system which consists of the voice set, voice qualities, and vocalization.[11]
* The voice set is the context in which the speaker is speaking. This can include the situation, gender, mood, age and a person's culture.
* The voice qualities are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality, and accent. They give each individual a unique "voice print".
* Vocalization consists of three subsections: characterizers, qualifiers and segregates. Characterizers are emotions expressed while speaking, such as laughing, crying, and yawning. A voice qualifier is the style of delivering a message - for example, yelling "Hey stop that!", as opposed to whispering "Hey stop that". Vocal segregates such as "uh-huh" notify the speaker that the listener is listening.
[edit] Functions of nonverbal communication
Argyle (1970) [12] put forward the hypothesis that whereas spoken language is normally used for communicating information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for instance in order to avoid embarrassing situations [13].
Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:[14]
* Express emotions
* Express interpersonal attitudes
* To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners
* Self-presentation of one’s personality
* Rituals (greetings)
[edit] Concealing deception
Nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed. This is the conclusion of a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused of having stolen a wallet. The interviewees lied in about 50% of the cases. People had access to either written transcripts of the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video recordings. The more clues that were available to those watching, the larger was the trend that interviewees who actually lied were judged to be truthful. That is, people that are clever at lying can use voice tone and face expression to give the impression that they are truthful [15].
However, there are many cited examples of 'leakage' cues[16], delivered via nonverbal (paraverbal and visual) communication channels, through which deceivers unwittingly provide clues to their concealed knowledge or actual opinions. Most studies examining the leakage hypothesis from visual cues rely upon hand coding of video footage (c.f. Vrij, 2008[17]), a method that is open to coding errors. A recent study, however, demonstrated clear bodily movement differences between truth-tellers and liars using an automated body motion capture system: truth-tellers demonstrated greater overall bodily movement compared to liars in two different situations[18].
[edit] The relation between verbal and nonverbal communication
[edit] The relative importance of verbal and nonverbal communication
Do you like kitty cats?This was investigated by Albert Mehrabian and reported in two papers [19][20]. The latter paper concluded: "It is suggested that the combined effect of simultaneous verbal, vocal, and facial attitude communications is a weighted sum of their independent effects - with coefficients of .07, .38, and .55, respectively." This "rule" that clues from spoken words, from the voice tone, and from the facial expression, contribute 7 %, 38 %, and 55 % respectively to the total meaning, is widely cited. It is presented on all types of popular courses with statements like "scientists have found out that . . . ". In reality, however, it is extremely weakly founded. First, it is based on the judgment of the meaning of single tape-recorded words, i.e. a very artificial context. Second, the figures are obtained by combining results from two different studies which potentially cannot be combined. Third, it relates only to the communication of positive versus negative emotions. Fourth, it relates only to women, as men did not participate in the study.
Since then, other studies have analysed the relative contribution of verbal and nonverbal signals under more naturalistic situations. Argyle [12] , using video tapes shown to the subjects, analysed the communication of submissive/dominant attitude and found that non-verbal cues had 4.3 times the effect of verbal cues. The most important effect was that body posture communicated superior status in a very efficient way. On the other hand, a study by Hsee et al.[21] had subjects judge a person on the dimension happy/sad and found that words spoken with minimal variation in intonation had an impact about 4 times larger than face expressions seen in a film without sound. Thus, the relative importance of spoken words and facial expressions may be very different in studies using different set-ups.
[edit] Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication
When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating.
[edit] Repeating
"Repeating" consists of using gestures to strengthen a verbal message, such as pointing to the object of discussion.[22]
[edit] Conflicting
Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration.[23] When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during interactions.
[edit] Complementing
Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal communication complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to reinforce the information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been shown to be remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.[24]
[edit] Substituting
Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a message. People learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as corresponding with specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without verbal communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively communicate a message, verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.[25]
[edit] Regulating
Nonverbal behavior also regulates our conversations. For example, touching someone's arm can signal that you want to talk next or interrupt.[25]
[edit] Accenting/Moderating
Nonverbal signals are used to alter the interpretation of verbal messages. Touch, voice pitch, and gestures are some of the tools people use to accent or amplify the message that is sent; nonverbal behavior can also be used to moderate or tone down aspects of verbal messages as well.[26] For example, a person who is verbally expressing anger may accent the verbal message by shaking a fist.
[edit] Dance and nonverbal communication
Dance is a form of nonverbal communication that requires the same underlying faculty in the brain for conceptualization, creativity and memory as does verbal language in speaking and writing. Means of self-expression, both forms have vocabulary (steps and gestures in dance), grammar (rules for putting the vocabulary together) and meaning. Dance, however, assembles (choreographs) these elements in a manner that more often resembles poetry, with its ambiguity and multiple, symbolic and elusive meanings.
[edit] Clinical studies of nonverbal communication
From 1977 to 2004, the influence of disease and drugs on receptivity of nonverbal communication was studied by teams at three separate medical schools using a similar paradigm.[27].Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh, Yale University and Ohio State University had subjects observe gamblers at a slot machine awaiting payoffs. The amount of this payoff was read by nonverbal transmission prior to reinforcement. This technique was developed by and the studies directed by psychologist, Dr. Robert E. Miller and psychiatrist, Dr. A. James Giannini. These groups reported diminished receptive ability in heroin addicts [28] and phencyclidine abusers[29] was contrasted with increased receptivity in cocaine addicts. Men with major depression[30] manifested significantly decreased ability to read nonverbal cues when compared with euthymic men.
Freitas-Magalhaes studied the effect of smile in the treatment of depression and concluded that depressive states decrease when you smile more often.[31]
Obese women[32] and women with premenstrual syndrome[33] were found to also possess diminished abilities to read these cues. In contradistinction, men with bipolar disorder possessed increased abilities.[34]. A woman with total paralysis of the nerves of facial expression was found unable to transmit any nonverbal facial cues whatsoever.[35]. Because of the changes in levels of accuracy on the levels of nonverbal receptivity, the members of the research team hypothesized a biochemical site in the brain which was operative for reception of nonverbal cues. Because certain drugs enhanced ability while others diminished it, the neurotransmitters dopamine and endorphin were considered to be likely etiological candidate. Based on the available data, however, the primary cause and primary effect could not be sorted out on the basis of the paradigm employed[36].
A byproduct of the work of the Pittsburgh/Yale/ Ohio State team was an investigation of the role of nonverbal facial cues in heterosexual nondate rape. Males who were serial rapists of adult women were studied for nonverbal receptive abilities. Their scores were the highest of any subgroup.[37] Rape victims were next tested. It was reported that women who had been raped on at least two occasions by different perpetrators had a highly significant impairment in their abilities to read these cues in either male or female senders.[38] These results were troubling, indicating a predator-prey model. The authors did note that whatever the nature of these preliminary findings the responsibility of the rapist was in no manner or level, diminished.
The final target of study for this group was the medical students they taught. Medical students at Ohio State University, Ohio University and Northest Ohio Medical College were invited to serve as subjects. Students indicating a preference for the specialties of family practice, psychiatry, pediatrics and obstetrics-gynecology achieved significantly higher levels of accuracy than those students who planned to train as surgeons, radiologists, or pathologists. Internal medicine and plastic surgery candidates scored at levels near the mean[39].
[edit] Difficulties with nonverbal communication
People vary in their ability to send and receive nonverbal communication. On average, to a moderate degree, women are better at nonverbal communication than are men [40][41][42][43].
Measurements of the ability to communicate nonverbally and the capacity to feel empathy have shown that the two abilities are independent of each other [44].
For people who have relatively large difficulties with nonverbal communication, this can pose significant challenges, especially in interpersonal relationships. There exist resources that are tailored specifically to these people, which attempt to assist those in understanding information which comes more easily to others. A specific group of persons that face these challenges are those with autism spectrum disorders, including Asperger syndrome.
[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ a b Knapp & Hall, 2002, p.7
2. ^ Grammer, Karl, Renninger, Leeann & Fischer, Bettina (2004): Disco clothing, female sexual motivation, and relationship status: is she dressed to impress? Journal of sexual research 41 (1): 66-74.
3. ^ Segerstrale & Molnar, 1997, p.235
4. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.8
5. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.9
6. ^ Bull, 1987, pp. 17-25
7. ^ a b Knapp & Hall, 2007, p. 9
8. ^ a b Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.10
9. ^ Remland, M.S. & Jones, T.S. (2005). Interpersonal distance, body orientation, and touch: The effect of culture, gender and age. Journal of Social Psychology,135, 281-297
10. ^ Argyle, 1988, pp. 153-155
11. ^ Floyd and Guerrero, 2006
12. ^ a b Argyle, Michael, Veronica Salter, Hilary Nicholson, Marylin Williams & Philip Burgess (1970): The communication of inferior and superior attitudes by verbal and non-verbal signals. British journal of social and clinical psychology 9: 222-231.
13. ^ Rosenthal, Robert & Bella M. DePaulo (1979): Sex differences in accommodation in nonverbal communication. Pp. 68-103 i R. Rosenthal (ed.): Skill in nonverbal communication: Individual differences. Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain.
14. ^ Argyle, 1988, p.5
15. ^ Burgoon, J. K., J. P. Blair & R.E.Strom (2008): Cognitive biases and nonverbal cue availability in detecting deception. Human communication research 34: 572-599.
16. ^ Ekman, P., & Friesen, W.V.: Nonverbal leakage and clues to deception: Psychiatry, vol. 32, pp. 88-106 (1969).
17. ^ Vrij, A. (2008). Detecting lies and deceit: Pitfalls and opportunities. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
18. ^ Eapen, N.M., Baron, S., Street, C.N.H., & Richardson, D.C. (2010). The bodily movements of liars. In S. Ohlsson & R. Catrambone (Eds.) Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Portland, OR: Cognitive Science Society
19. ^ Mehrabian, Albert & Morton Wiener (1967): Decoding of inconsistent communications. Journal of personality and social psychology 6(1): 109-114.
20. ^ Mehrabian, Albert & Susan R. Ferris (1967): Inference of attitudes from nonverbal communication in two channels. Journal of consulting psychology 31 (3): 248-252.
21. ^ Christopher K. Hsee, Elaine Hatfield & Claude Chemtob (1992): Assessments of the emotional states of others: Conscious judgments versus emotional contagion. Journal of social and clinical psychology 14 (2): 119-128.
22. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.12
23. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.13
24. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.14
25. ^ a b Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.16
26. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.17
27. ^ RE Miller, AJ Giannini, JM Levine. Nonverbal communication in men with a cooperative conditioning task. Journal of Social Psychology. 103:101-108, 1977
28. ^ AJ Giannini, BT Jones. Decreased reception of nonverbal cues in heroin addicts. Journal of Psychology. 119(5):455-459, 1985.
29. ^ AJ Giannini. RK Bowman, JD Giannini. Perception of nonverbal facial cues in chronic phencyclidine abusers. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 89:72-76, 1999
30. ^ AJ Giannini, DJ Folts, SM Melemis RH Loiselle. Depressed men's lowered ability to interpret nonverbal cues. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 81:555-559, 1995.
31. ^ Freitas-Magalhães, A., & Castro, E. (2009). Facial Expression: The Effect of the Smile in the Treatment of Depression. Empirical Study with Portuguese Subjects. In A. Freitas-Magalhães (Ed.), Emotional Expression: The Brain and The Face (127-140). Porto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643-034-4.
32. ^ AJ Giannini, L DiRusso, DJ Folts, G Cerimele. Nonverbal communication in moderately obese females. A pilot study. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry. 2:111-1115, 1990.
33. ^ AJ Giannini, LM Sorger, DM Martin, L Bates. Journal of Psychology. 122:591-594, 1988.
34. ^ AJ Giannini, DJ Folts, L Fiedler. Enhanced encoding of nonverval cues in male bipolars. Journal of Psychology. 124:557-561, 1990.
35. ^ AJ Giannini,D Tamulonis,MC Giannini, RH Loiselle, G Spirtos,. Defective response to social cues in Mobius syndrome. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders. 172174-175, 1984.
36. ^ AJ Giannini. Suggestions for future studies of nonverbal facial cues. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 81:555-558,1995
37. ^ AJ Giannini,KW Fellows. Enhanced interpretation of nonverbal cues in male rapists. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 15:153-158,1986.
38. ^ AJ Giannini, WA Price, JL Kniepple. Decreased interpretation of nonverbal cues in rape victims. International Journal of Pschiatry in Medicine. 16:389-394,1986.
39. ^ AJ Giannini,JD Giannini, RK Bowman. Measrement of nonverbal receptive abilities in medical students. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 90:1145-1150, 2000
40. ^ Judith A. Hall (1978): Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues. Psychological bulletin 85: 845-857.
41. ^ Judith A. Hall (1984): Nonverbal sex differences. Communication accuracy and expressive style. 207 pp. Johns Hopkins University Press.
42. ^ Judith A. Hall, Jason D. Carter & Terrence G. Horgan (2000): Gender differences in nonverbal communication of emotion. Pp. 97 - 117 i A. H. Fischer (ed.): Gender and emotion: social psychological perspectives. Cambridge University Press.
43. ^ Agneta H. Fischer & Anthony S. R. Manstead (2000): The relation between gender and emotions in different cultures. Pp. 71 - 94 i A. H. Fischer (ed.): Gender and emotion: social psychological perspectives. Cambridge University Press.
44. ^ Judith A. Hall (1979): Gender, gender roles, and nonverbal communication skills. Pp. 32-67 in R. Rosenthal (ed.): Skill in nonverbal communication: Individual differences. Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain.
[edit] See also
* Albert Mehrabian
* Asemic writing
* Behavioral communication
* Body language
* Chinese number gestures
* Desmond Morris
* Doctrine of mental reservation
* Forgetfulness
* Intercultural competence
* Joe Navarro
* Metacommunicative competence
* Microexpression
* Neuro-linguistic programming
* Nunchi
* People skills
* Regulatory Focus Theory
* Semiotics
* Silent service code
* Twilight language
* Unconscious communication
[edit] References
* Andersen, Peter. (2007). Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (2nd ed.) Waveland Press.
* Andersen, Peter. (2004). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Body Language. Alpha Publishing.
* Argyle, Michael. (1988). Bodily Communication (2nd ed.) Madison: International Universities Press. ISBN 0-416-38140-5
* Bull, Peter E. (1987). Posture and Gesture (Vol. 16). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-031332-9
* Burgoon, J. K., Guerrero, L. K., & Floyd, K. (2011), Nonverbal communication, Boston: Allyn & Bacon. [1]
* Floyd, K., Guerrero, L. K. (2006), Nonverbal communication in close relationships, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
* Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2006). The Psychology of Human Smile. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 972-8830-59-9
* Givens, D.B. (2000) Body speak: what are you saying? Successful Meetings (October) 51
* Guerrero, L. K., DeVito, J. A., Hecht, M. L. (Eds.) (1999). The nonverbal communication reader. (2nd ed.), Lone Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press. [2]
* Gudykunst, W.B. & Ting-Toomey, S. (1988) Culture and Interpersonal Communication. California: Sage Publications Inc.
* Hanna, Judith L. (1987). To Dance Is Human: A Theory of Nonverbal Communication. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* Hargie, O. & Dickson, D. (2004) Skilled Interpersonal Communication: Research, Theory and Practice. Hove: Routledge.
* Knapp, Mark L., & Hall, Judith A. (2007) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. (5th ed.) Wadsworth: Thomas Learning. ISBN 0-15-506372-3
* Melamed, J. & Bozionelos, N. (1992) Managerial promotion and height. Psychological Reports, 71 pp. 587–593.
* Remland, Martin S. (2009). Nonverbal communication in everyday life. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
* Ottenheimer, H.J. (2007), The anthropology of language: an introduction to linguistic anthropology, Kansas State: Thomson Wadsworth.
* Segerstrale, Ullica., & Molnar, Peter (Eds.). (1997). Nonverbal Communication: Where Nature Meets Culture. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-2179-1
* Zysk, Wolfgang (2004), ″Körpersprache - Eine neue Sicht″, Doctoral Dissertation 2004, University Duisburg-Essen (Germany).
[edit] External links
* "Credibility, Respect, and Power: Sending the Right Nonverbal Signals" by Debra Stein
* Advanced Body Language by Roman Smirnov, 2008
* Online Nonverbal Library with more than 500 free available articles on this topic.
* The Nonverbal Dictionary of Gestures, Signs & Body Language Cues by David B. Givens
* "Psychology Today Nonverbal Communication Blog posts" by Joe Navarro
* "NVC Portal - A useful portal providing information on Nonverbal Communication"
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communication"
Categories: Nonverbal communication
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[close]
Human positions
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Human position)
Jump to: navigation, search
"Pose" redirects here. For other uses, see Pose (disambiguation).
Human positions refers to the different positions that the human body can take.
There are several synonyms that refer to the human position, often used interchangeably, but having specific flavors.[1]
* Position is a general term for a configuration of the human body
* Posture means the intentionally or habitually assumed position
* Pose implies artistic or aesthetic intention of the position
* Attitude refers to postures assumed for purpose of imitation, intentional or not, as well as in some standard collocations in reference to some distinguished types of posture: "Freud never assumed a fencer's attitude, yet almost all took him for a swordsman."[2]
* Bearing refers to the manner, of the posture, as well as of gestures and other aspects of the conduct taking place
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Basic positions
o 1.1 Standing
o 1.2 Sitting
o 1.3 Squatting
o 1.4 Lying
o 1.5 Kneeling
o 1.6 Crouching
o 1.7 All-fours
* 2 Atypical positions
* 3 Bondage positions
* 4 Childbirth positions
* 5 Dance positions
* 6 Defecation positions
* 7 Eating positions
* 8 Heat escape lessening position
* 9 Medical positions
* 10 Recovery position
* 11 Resting positions
* 12 Sex positions
* 13 Shooting positions
* 14 Sleeping positions
* 15 Submissive positions
* 16 Urination positions
* 17 Yoga positions
* 18 See also
* 19 References
* 20 Further reading
[edit] Basic positions
While not moving, a human is usually in one of the following basic positions.
[edit] Standing
Main article: Standing
Standing couple, January 1873
Although quiet standing appears to be static, modern instrumentation shows it to be a process of rocking from the ankle in the sagittal plane. The sway of quiet standing is often likened to the motion of an inverted pendulum.[3] There are many mechanisms in the body that are suggested to control this movement, e.g. a spring action in muscles, higher control from the nervous system or core muscles.
Although standing per se isn't dangerous, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain.
[edit] Sitting
Main article: Sitting
Paul Cézanne. A sitting position
Sitting requires the buttocks resting on a more or less horizontal structure, like a chair or the ground. Special ways of sitting are with the legs horizontal, and in an inclined seat. While on a chair the shins are usually vertical, on the ground the shins may be crossed in the lotus position or be placed horizontally under the thigh in a seiza.
[edit] Squatting
Main article: Squatting position
Squatting on the ground as a resting position.
Squatting is a posture where the weight of the body is on the feet (as with standing) but the knees are bent either fully (full or deep squat) or partially (partial, half, semi, parallel or monkey squat). It may be used as a posture for resting or working at ground level when the ground is too dirty to sit or kneel; for defecation (the normal such posture in the many parts of the world that use squat toilets); or as a temporary position during lower body squat exercises.
[edit] Lying
Main article: Lying (position)
"Jupiter et Antiope", by Antoine Watteau
When in lying position, the body may assume a great variety of shapes and positions. The following are the basic recognized positions.
* Supine position: lying on the back with the face up.
* Prone position: lying (or laying) on the chest with the face down ("lying down", "laying down", or "going prone").
Lying on either side, with the body straight or bent/curled forward or backward. The fetal position is lying or sitting curled, with limbs close to the torso and the head close to the knees.
[edit] Kneeling
Main article: Kneeling
A kneeling skeleton
Kneeling is standing not on the feet, but on one or both knees or shins approximately parallel to the ground, possibly raised to an angle depending on the position of the feet. The torso is usually upright but can be considered kneeling at other angles not touching the ground.
[edit] Crouching
Crouching Aphrodite, Louvre
To crouch means "to bend down; to stoop low; to lie close to the ground with legs bent, as an animal when waiting for prey or in fear."[4]
Crouching may involve squatting or kneeling.
[edit] All-fours
See also: The Gaskin Maneuver
This is the static form of crawling which is instinctive form of locomotion for very young children. It is a commonly used childbirth position in non-Western cultures.[5]
[edit] Atypical positions
Hanging man by David Černý
Atypical positions include:
* standing on one leg
* handstand
* head stand
* spreadeagle
* crab position
* Humans can hang in various positions. It is a position where the support is above the center of gravity. It may be voluntary or involuntary.
Such positions are common to break dancing, gymnastics and yoga.
[edit] Bondage positions
Main article: List of bondage positions
A bondage position is a body position created by physical restraints which restricts locomotion, use of the limbs or general freedom of movement.
[edit] Childbirth positions
Main article: Childbirth positions
In addition to the lithotomy position still commonly used by many obstetricians, childbirth positions that are successfully used by midwives and traditional birth-attendants the world over include squatting, standing, kneeling and on all-fours, often in a sequence.[6]
[edit] Dance positions
Main article: Dance positions
Dance position is a position of a dancer or a mutual position of a dance couple assumed during a dance. Describing and mastering proper dance positions is an important part of dance technique.
[edit] Defecation positions
Main article: Defecation positions
The two most common defecation positions are squatting and sitting. The squatting posture is used for Japanese toilets and squat toilets. It is also commonly used for defecation in the absence of toilets or other devices. The sitting defecation posture is used in Western toilets, with a lean-forward posture or a 90-degrees posture. In general, the posture chosen is a cultural decision although the case has been made that squatting provides health benefits over sitting.
[edit] Eating positions
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[edit] Heat escape lessening position
Main article: Heat escape lessening position
The heat escape lessening position (HELP), is a way to position oneself to reduce heat loss in cold water. It is taught as part of the curriculum in Australia, North America and Ireland for lifeguard and boating safety training. It involves essentially positioning one's knees together and hugging them close to the chest using one's arms.
[edit] Medical positions
The following positions are specifically used in medicine:[7]
* anatomical position
* Bozeman's position
* decubitus position
* Fowler's position
* knee-chest position
* knee-elbow position
* lithotomy position
* Mayer position
* Rose's position
* semi-Fowler position
* Sims position
* Trendelenburg position
* verticosubmental position
* Waters' position
[edit] Recovery position
Main article: Recovery position
The recovery position or coma position refers to one of a series of variations on a lateral recumbent or three-quarters prone position of the body, in to which an unconscious but breathing casualty can be placed as part of first aid treatment.
[edit] Resting positions
A large number of resting positions are possible, based on variations of sitting, squatting, kneeling or lying.[8]
[edit] Sex positions
Main article: Sex positions
Sex positions are positions which people may adopt during or for the purpose of sexual intercourse or other sexual activities. Sexual acts are generally described by the positions the participants adopt in order to perform those acts.
[edit] Shooting positions
* Kneeling position
* Prone position
* Standing position
* Three positions
[edit] Sleeping positions
Main article: Sleeping positions
The sleeping position is the body configuration assumed by a person during or prior to sleeping. Six basic sleeping positions have been identified:
* Fetus (41%) – curling up in a fetal position. This was the most common position, and is especially popular with women.
* Log (15%) – lying on one's side with the arms down the side.
* Yearner (13%) – sleeping on one's side with the arms in front.
* Soldier (8%) – on one's back with the arms pinned to the sides.
* Freefall (7%) – on one's front with the arms around the pillow and the head tilted to one side.
* Starfish (5%) – on one's back with the arms around
[edit] Submissive positions
* Genuflection (or genuflexion) is bending at least one knee to the ground, was from early times a gesture of deep respect for a superior.
* Kneeling is associated with reverence, submission and obeisance, particularly if one kneels before a person who is standing or sitting.
* Kowtowing is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to have one's head touching the ground.
* Prostration is the placement of the body in a reverentially or submissively prone position.
[edit] Urination positions
Main article: Urination
For males, because of the flexible and protruding nature of the penis, it is simple to control the direction of the urine stream. Most males urinate in a standing position although they could urinate sitting down or squatting.
For females, the urine does not exit at a distance from the body and is therefore harder to control. Females most commonly urinate sitting (on a toilet) or squatting. Many females are able to urinate standing, sometimes using a female urination device.
[edit] Yoga positions
Main article: List of yoga postures
Yoga positions are intended primarily to restore and maintain a practitioner's well-being, improve the body's flexibility and vitality, and promote the ability to remain in seated meditation for extended periods.
[edit] See also
* Abnormal posturing
* Anatomical terms of location
* Alexander Technique
* Contortionism
* Ergonomics
* Feldenkrais Method
* Gait (human)
* Human anatomical terms
* Mitzvah Technique
* Neutral spine
* Positional asphyxia
* Postural Integration
* Posture release imagery
* Terrestrial locomotion in animals
[edit] References
1. ^ "Position." Dictionary.com, Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 24 October 2007. Reference.com
2. ^ Fritz Wittels, "Freud and the Child Woman: The Memoirs of Fritz Wittels", SBN 0300064853, Google Books, p.49
3. ^ Abstract Kinematic and kinetic validity of the inverted pendulum model in quiet standing, NIH
4. ^ http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/crouch
5. ^ Engelmann GJ Labor Among Primitive Peoples (1883)
6. ^ Engelmann GJ Labor Among Primitive Peoples (1883)
7. ^ http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/knee-chest+position
8. ^ Hewes GW: ' World distribution of certain postural habits' American Anthropologist, 57, (1955), 231-44
[edit] Further reading
* Hewes GW: The anthropology of posture Scientific American, 196: 122-132 (1957)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Standing
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kneeling
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sitting
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_positions"
Categories: Human body positions
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Human body
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This article is about the human body as a whole. For components within the human body, see human anatomy.
Human body features displayed on bodies on which body hair and male facial hair has been removed
The human body is the entire structure of a human organism, and consists of a head, neck, torso, two arms and two legs. By the time the human reaches adulthood, the body consists of close to 100 trillion cells[1], the basic unit of life. These cells are organised biologically to eventually form the whole body.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Size, type and proportion
* 2 Systems
o 2.1 Cardiovascular system
o 2.2 Digestive system
o 2.3 Integumentary system
o 2.4 Lymphatic system
o 2.5 Musculoskeletal system
+ 2.5.1 Bones
o 2.6 Nervous system
o 2.7 Reproductive system
* 3 References
* 4 External links
[edit] Size, type and proportion
Main article: Body proportion
Constituents of the human body
In a normal man weighing 60 kg
Constituent Weight [2] Percent of atoms[2]
Oxygen 38.8 kg 25.5 %
Carbon 10.9 kg 9.5 %
Hydrogen 6.0 kg 63 %
Nitrogen 1.9 kg 1.4 %
Calcium 1.2 kg 0.3 %
Phosphorus 0.6 kg 0.2 %
Potassium 0.2 kg 0.06 %
The average height of an adult male human (in developed countries) is about 1.7–1.8 m (5'7" to 5'11") tall and the adult female about 1.6–1.7 m (5'2" to 5'7") tall.[3] This size is firstly determined by genes and secondly by diet. Body type and body composition are influenced by postnatal factors such as diet and exercise[citation needed].
[edit] Systems
Main article: Organ systems
The organ systems of the body include the musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular system, digestive system, endocrine system, integumentary system, urinary system, lymphatic system, immune system, respiratory system, nervous system and reproductive system.
Anterior (frontal) view of the opened heart. White arrows indicate normal blood flow.
[edit] Cardiovascular system
Main articles: Cardiovascular system and Human heart
The cardiovascular system comprises the heart, veins, arteries and capillaries. The primary function of the heart is to circulate the blood, and through the blood, oxygen and vital minerals are transferred to the tissues and organs that comprise the body. The left side of the main organ (left ventricle and left atrium) is responsible for pumping blood to all parts of the body, while the right side (right ventricle and right atrium) pumps only to the lungs for re-oxygenation of the blood.[4][5] The heart itself is divided into three layers called the endocardium, myocardium and epicardium, which vary in thickness and function.[6]
[edit] Digestive system
Main articles: Digestive system and Human gastrointestinal tract
The digestive system provides the body's means of processing food and transforming nutrients into energy. The digestive system consists of the - buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine ending in the rectum and anus. These parts together are called the alimentary canal (digestive tract).
[edit] Integumentary system
Main article: Integumentary system
The integumentary system is the largest organ system in the human body, and is responsible for protecting the body from most physical and environmental factors. The largest organ in the body, is the skin. The integument also includes appendages, primarily the sweat and sebaceous glands, hair, nails and arrectores pili (tiny muscles at the root of each hair that cause goose bumps).
[edit] Lymphatic system
Main articles: Lymphatic system and Immune system
The main function of the lymphatic system is to extract, transport and metabolise lymph, the fluid found in between cells. The lymphatic system is very similar to the circulatory system in terms of both its structure and its most basic function (to carry a body fluid).
[edit] Musculoskeletal system
Main article: Musculoskeletal system
The human musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton, made by bones attached to other bones with joints, and skeletal muscle attached to the skeleton by tendons.
[edit] Bones
Main articles: Human skeleton and List of bones of the human skeleton
An adult human has approximately 206 distinct bones:
Spine and vertebral column (26)
Cranium (8)
Face (14)
Hyoid bone, sternum and ribs (26)
Upper extremities (70)
Lower extremities (62)
[edit] Nervous system
Main articles: Nervous system and Human brain
The nervous system consists of cells that communicate information about an organism's surroundings and itself.
[edit] Reproductive system
Main article: Reproductive system
Human reproduction takes place as internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the erect penis of the male is inserted into the female's vagina until the male ejaculates semen, which contains sperm, into the female's vagina. The sperm then travels through the vagina and cervix into the uterus or fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum.
The human male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside the body and around the pelvic region of a male that contribute towards the reproductive process. The primary direct function of the male reproductive system is to provide the male gamete or spermatozoa for fertilization of the ovum.
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three categories. The first category is sperm production and storage. Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the temperature regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel to the epididymis for development and storage. The second category are the ejaculatory fluid producing glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate, and the vas deferens. The final category are those used for copulation, and deposition of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the female, these include the penis, urethra, vas deferens and Cowper's gland.
The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside of the body and around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process. The human female reproductive system contains three main parts: the vagina, which acts as the receptacle for the male's sperm, the uterus, which holds the developing fetus, and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The breasts are also an important reproductive organ during the parenting stage of reproduction.
The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia, clitoris and urethra; during intercourse this area is lubricated by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, typically approximately every 28 days, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through a process known as menstruation.
[edit] References
1. ^ Page 21 Inside the human body: using scientific and exponential notation. Author: Greg Roza. Edition: Illustrated. Publisher: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN 1404233628, 9781404233621. Length: 32pages
2. ^ a b Page 3 in Chemical storylines. Author: George Burton. Edition 2, illustrated. Publisher: Heinemann, 2000. ISBN 0435631195, 9780435631192. Length: 312 pages
3. ^ http://www.human-body.org/
4. ^ "Cardiovascular System". U.S. National Cancer Institute. http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit7_1_cardvasc_intro.html. Retrieved 2008-09-16. [dead link]
5. ^ Human Biology and Health. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 1993. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
6. ^ "The Cardiovascular System". SUNY Downstate Medical Center. 2008-03-08. http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/histomanual/cardiovascular.html. Retrieved 2008-09-16.
[edit] External links
* Referencing site and detailed pictures showing information on the human body anatomy and structure
Look up body in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: body
[show]v · d · eHuman systems and organs
TA 2–4:
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Facial expression
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Photographs from the 1862 book Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine by Guillaume Duchenne. Through electric stimulation, Duchenne determined which muscles were responsible for different facial expressions. Charles Darwin would later republish some of these photographs in his own work on the subject, which compared facial expressions in humans to those in animals.
A facial expression results from one or more motions or positions of the muscles of the face. These movements convey the emotional state of the individual to observers. Facial expressions are a form of nonverbal communication. They are a primary means of conveying social information among humans, but also occur in most other mammals and some other animal species. Facial expressions and their significance in the perceiver can, to some extent, vary between cultures.[1][verification needed]
Humans can adopt a facial expression to read as a voluntary action. However, because expressions are closely tied to emotion, they are more often involuntary. It can be nearly impossible to avoid expressions for certain emotions, even when it would be strongly desirable to do so;[citation needed] a person who is trying to avoid insult to an individual he or she finds highly unattractive might nevertheless show a brief expression of disgust before being able to reassume a neutral expression.[citation needed] Microexpressions are one example of this phenomenon. The close link between emotion and expression can also work in the other direction; it has been observed that voluntarily assuming an expression can actually cause the associated emotion.[citation needed]
Some expressions can be accurately interpreted even between members of different species- anger and extreme contentment being the primary examples. Others, however, are difficult to interpret even in familiar individuals. For instance, disgust and fear can be tough to tell apart.[citation needed]
Because faces have only a limited range of movement, expressions rely upon fairly minuscule differences in the proportion and relative position of facial features, and reading them requires considerable sensitivity to same. Some faces are often falsely read as expressing some emotion, even when they are neutral, because their proportions naturally resemble those another face would temporarily assume when emoting.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Universality debate
* 2 Communication
o 2.1 Eye contact
o 2.2 Face overall
* 3 Facial expressions
* 4 The muscles of facial expression
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links
Universality debate
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Charles Darwin noted in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals:
...the young and the old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements.[citation needed]
Still, up to the mid-20th century most anthropologists believed that facial expressions were entirely learned and could therefore differ among cultures. Studies conducted in the 1960s by Paul Ekman eventually supported Darwin's belief to a large degree.
Ekman's work on facial expressions had its starting point in the work of psychologist Silvan Tomkins.[2] Ekman showed that contrary to the belief of some anthropologists including Margaret Mead, facial expressions of emotion are not culturally determined, but universal across human cultures.
The South Fore people of New Guinea were chosen as subjects for one such survey. The study consisted of 189 adults and 130 children from among a very isolated population, as well as twenty three members of the culture who lived a less isolated lifestyle as a control group. Participants were told a story that described one particular emotion; they were then shown three pictures (two for children) of facial expressions and asked to match the picture which expressed the story's emotion.
While the isolated South Fore people could identify emotions with the same accuracy as the non-isolated control group, problems associated with the study include the fact that both fear and surprise were constantly misidentified. The study concluded that certain facial expressions correspond to particular emotions, regardless of cultural background, and regardless of whether or not the culture has been isolated or exposed to the mainstream.
Expressions Ekman found to be universal included those indicating anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, and surprise. Findings on contempt are less clear, though there is at least some preliminary evidence that this emotion and its expression are universally recognized.[3]
More recent studies in 2009 show that people from different cultures are likely to interpret facial expressions in different ways. For example, in Canada, the surprised face can be easily mixed up for the disgusted (or sometimes scared) in Kowloon, Hong Kong. [1][verification needed]
Communication
Eye contact
See also: Eye contact
A person's face, especially their eyes, creates the most obvious and immediate cues that lead to the formation of impressions.[4] This article discusses eyes and facial expressions and the effect they have on interpersonal communication.
A person's eyes reveal much about how they are feeling, or what they are thinking. Blink rate can reveal how nervous or at ease a person may be. Research by Boston College professor Joe Tecce suggests that stress levels are revealed by blink rates. He supports his data with statistics on the relation between the blink rates of presidential candidates and their success in their races. Tecce claims that the faster blinker in the presidential debates has lost every election since 1980.[5] Though Tecce's data is interesting, it is important to recognize that non-verbal communication is multi-channeled, and focusing on only one aspect is reckless. Nervousness can also be measured by examining each candidates' perspiration, eye contact and stiffness.[6]
Eye contact is another major aspect of facial communication. Some have hypothesized that this is due to infancy, as humans are one of the few mammals who maintain regular eye contact with their mother while nursing.[7] Eye contact serves a variety of purposes. It regulates conversations, shows interest or involvement, and establishes a connection with others.
Eye contact regulates conversational turn taking, communicates involvement and interest, manifests warmth, and establishes connections with others…[and] it can command attention, be flirtatious, or seem cold and intimidating… [it] invites conversation. Lack of eye contact is usually perceived to be rude or inattentive.[6]
But different cultures have different rules for eye contact. Certain Asian cultures can perceive direct eye contact as a way to signal competitiveness, which in many situations may prove to be inappropriate. Others lower their eyes to signal respect, and similarly eye contact is avoided in Nigeria, and between men and women in Islam;[8] however, in western cultures this could be misinterpreted as lacking self-confidence.
Even beyond the idea of eye contact, eyes communicate more data than a person even consciously expresses. Pupil dilation is a significant cue to a level of excitement, pleasure, or attraction. Dilated pupils indicate greater affection or attraction, while constricted pupils send a colder signal.
Face overall
The face as a whole indicates much about human moods as well. Specific emotional states, such as happiness or sadness, are expressed through a smile or a frown, respectively. There are seven universally recognized emotions shown through facial expressions: fear, anger, surprise, contempt, disgust, happiness, and sadness. Regardless of culture, these expressions are the same. However, the same emotion from a specific facial expression may be recognized by a culture, but the same intensity of emotion may not be perceived. For example, studies have shown that Asian cultures tend to rate images of facial emotions as less intense than non-Asian cultures surveyed. This difference can be explained by display rules, which are culture-specific guidelines for behavior appropriateness. In some countries, it may be more rude to display an emotion than in another. Showing anger toward another member in a group may create problems and disharmony, but if displayed towards a competitive rival, it could create in-group cohesion.[citation needed]
Facial expressions
Some examples of feelings that can be expressed are:
* Anger
* Concentration
* Confusion
* Contempt
* Desire
* Disgust
* Excitement
* Empathy
* Fear
* Flirt
* Frustration
* Glare
* Gross
* Happiness
* Sadness
* Snarl, mainly involving the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle
* Surprise
The muscles of facial expression
See also: facial muscles.
* Auricularis anterior muscle
* Buccinator muscle
* Corrugator supercilii muscle
* Depressor anguli oris muscle
* Depressor labii inferioris muscle
* Depressor septi nasi muscle
* Frontalis muscle
* Levator anguli oris muscle
* Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle
* Levator labii superioris muscle
* Mentalis muscle
* Modiolus muscle
* Nasalis muscle
* Orbicularis oculi muscle
* Orbicularis oris muscle
* Platysma muscle
* Procerus muscle
* Risorius muscle
* Zygomaticus major muscle
* Zygomaticus minor muscle
See also
* Affect display
* Gurn
* Facial Action Coding System, Paul Ekman
* Laughter, Gelotology, Freitas-Magalhães
* Metacommunicative competence
* Bell's Palsy
* Facial Paralysis
References
1. ^ a b Judith Burns, 14 August 2009, Facial expressions 'not global' - BBC News
2. ^ "FAQS Investigators Guide - Acknowledgements". http://www.face-and-emotion.com/dataface/facs/guide/FACSIVAk.html. Retrieved 2 September 2009.
3. ^ Matsumoto, David (1992) "More evidence for the universality of a contempt expression". Motivation and Emotion. Springer Netherlands. Volume 16, Number 4 / December, 1992. Abstract
4. ^ Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007). The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press
5. ^ “In the blink of an eye.” (October 21, 1999). Newsweek.
6. ^ a b Rothwell, J. Dan. In the Company of Others: An Introduction to Communication. United States: McGraw-Hill, 2004.
7. ^ Spitz, Rene A., and Wolf, K. M. “The Smiling Response: A Contribution to the Ontogenesis of Social Relations.” Genetic Psychology Monographs. 34 (August 1946). P. 57-125.
8. ^ Caring for Patients from Different Cultures, by Geri-Ann Galanti, p. 34
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Facial expression
* The Naked Face, August 5, 2002. Annals of Psychology
* Facial Expressions Resources Page contains links to research concerning facial expressions
* Bell's Palsy information site Information for sufferer's of facial palsy/facial paralysis
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_expression"
Categories: Facial expressions | Anatomical simulation
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Microexpression
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A microexpression is a brief, involuntary facial expression shown on the face of humans according to emotions experienced. They usually occur in high-stakes situations, where people have something to lose or gain. Unlike regular facial expressions, it is difficult to fake microexpressions. Microexpressions express the seven universal emotions: disgust, anger, fear, sadness, happiness, surprise, and contempt.[1] They are very brief in duration, lasting only 1/15 to 1/25 of a second.[2]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Wizards Project
* 3 In popular culture
* 4 See also
* 5 References
* 6 External links
[edit] History
Microexpressions were first discovered by Haggard and Isaacs. In their 1966 study, Haggard and Isaacs outlined how they discovered these "micromomentary" expressions while "scanning motion picture films of psychotherapy hours, searching for indications of non-verbal communication between therapist and patient" [3]This reprint edition of Ekman and Friesen's breakthrough research on the facial expression of emotion uses scores of photographs showing emotions of surprise, fear, disgust, contempt, anger, happiness, and sadness. The authors of Unmasking the Face explain how to identify these basic emotions correctly and how to tell when people try to mask, simulate, or neutralize them.
In the 1960s, William S. Condon pioneered the study of interactions at the fraction-of-a-second level. In his famous research project, he scrutinized a four-and-a-half-second film segment frame by frame, where each frame represented 1/25th second. After studying this film segment for a year and a half, he discerned interactional micromovements, such as the wife moving her shoulder exactly as the husband's hands came up, which combined yielded microrhythms.[4]
Years after Condon's study, American psychologist John Gottman began video-recording living relationships to study how couples interact. By studying participants' facial expressions, Gottman was able to correlate expressions with which relationships would last and which would not.[5] Gottman's 2002 paper makes no claims to accuracy in terms of binary classification, and is instead a regression analysis of a two factor model where skin conductance levels and oral history narratives encodings are the only two statistically significant variables. Facial expressions using Ekman's encoding scheme were not statistically significant.[6] In Malcom Gladwell's book "Blink", which was written many years after "Emotional Intelligence" already brought Gottman's work to the attention of the public, Gottman states that there are four major emotional reactions that are destructive to a marriage: defensiveness, stonewalling, criticism, and contempt. Among these four, Gottman considers contempt the most important of them all.[7]
[edit] Wizards Project
Main article: Wizards Project
Most people do not seem to perceive microexpressions in themselves or others. In the Wizards Project, previously called the "Diogenes Project", Drs. Paul Ekman and Maureen O'Sullivan studied the ability of people to detect deception. Of the thousands of people tested, only a select few were able to accurately detect when someone was lying. The Wizards Project researchers named these people "Truth Wizards". To date, the Wizards Project has identified just over 50 people with this ability after testing nearly 20,000 people.[8] Truth Wizards use microexpressions, among many other cues, to determine if someone is being truthful. Scientists hope by studying wizards that they can further advance the techniques used to identify deception.
[edit] In popular culture
This "In popular culture" section may contain minor or trivial references. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances, and remove trivial references. (June 2010)
Microexpressions and associated science are the central premise for the 2009 television series Lie to Me, in which the main character uses his acute awareness of microexpressions to determine when someone is lying or hiding something.
They also play a central role in Robert Ludlum's posthumously published The Ambler Warning, in which the central character, Harrison Ambler, is an intelligence agent who is able to see them. Similarly, one of the main characters in Alastair Reynolds science fiction novel, Absolution Gap, Aura, can easily read microexpressions.
On Law & Order: Criminal Intent, Detective Robert Goren was adept in detecting microexpressions.
[edit] See also
* Nonverbal communication
* Body language
* Facecrime
* Facial Action Coding System
[edit] References
1. ^ P. Ekman, “Facial Expressions of Emotion: an Old Controversy and New Findings”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, B335:63--69, 1992
2. ^ http://face.paulekman.com/aboutmett2.aspx
3. ^ Haggard, E. A., & Isaacs, K. S. (1966). Micro-momentary facial expressions as indicators of ego mechanisms in psychotherapy. In L. A. Gottschalk & A. H. Auerbach (Eds.), Methods of Research in Psychotherapy (pp. 154-165). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
4. ^ http://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Citation/1966/10000/Sound_Film_Analysis_of_Normal_and_Pathological.5.aspx
5. ^ http://www.gottman.com/49853/Research-FAQs.html
6. ^ Gottman, J. and Levenson, R.W., (2002). A Two-Factor Model for Predicting When a Couple Will Divorce: Exploratory Analyses Using 14-Year Longitudinal Data, Family Process, 41 (1), p. 83-96
7. ^ Gladwell, Malcolm (2005). Blink, Chapter 1, Section 3, The Importance of Contempt
8. ^ Camilleri, J., Truth Wizard knows when you've been lying", Chicago Sun-Times, January 21, 2009
Sound Film Analysis of Normal and Pathological Behavior Patterns, CONDON, W. S.; OGSTON, W. D., Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. 143(4):338-347, October 1966.
[edit] External links
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links. (June 2010)
* Freitas-Magalhaes' Personal Site
* Paul Ekman's Personal Site
* Dr. David Matsumoto
* Free Micro Expression Training
* J.J. Newberry, director
* Janine Driver, director
* Joe Navarro, director
* Maureen O'Sullivan's Blog
* Lying and Deceit: The Wizards Project
* Scientists Pick Out Human Lie Detectors, MSNBC.com
* Lying Is Exposed By Microexpressions We Can't Control, Science Daily, May 2006
* The Naked Face
* Facial Expressions Test based on "The Micro Expression Training Tool"
* "A Look Tells All" in Scientific American Mind October 2006
* Microexpressions Complicate Face Reading, by Medical News Today August 2007
* Deception Detection, American Psychological Association
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microexpression"
Categories: Facial expressions | Emotion | Nonverbal communication
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William S. Condon
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This article may need to be wikified to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please help by adding relevant internal links, or by improving the article's layout. (May 2009)
William S. Condon is a researcher who investigated human interactions. He developed the concept of situation synchrony.[1]
[edit] Cultural references
In Malcolm Gladwell's 2000 book, The Tipping Point, he cites Condon's research to help explain why some "Salesman" types may contribute more to word-of-mouth cultural 'epidemics'.
Some other reference is made in Flora Davis's book "Inside Intuition-What we know about Non-Verbal Communication" published in New York by McGraw-Hill Books. Which talks about the study he did on Interactional Syncrony. [2]
[edit] Works
* Condon, W. S. (1996). Sound-Film Microanalysis: A Means for Correlating Brain and Behavior in Persons with Autism. Proceedings of the 1996 Autism Society of America National Conference, Milwaukee, WI, July 1996, 221–225.
* Condon, W. S. (1985). Sound-Film Microanalysis: A Means for Correlating Brain and Behavior. In Frank Duffy and Norman Geschwind (Eds.), Dyslexia: A Neuroscientific Approach to Clinical Evaluation, Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., 123–156.
* Condon, W. S. (1974) Cultural Microrhythms. In M. Davis (Ed.), Interaction Rhythms. New York: Human Sciences, 1982.
* Condon, W. S. (1971). Speech and Body Motion Synchrony of the Speaker-Hearer. In D. L. Horton and J. J. Jenkins (Eds.), Perception of Language, Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 150–173.
* Condon, W. S. (1974). Multiple response to sound in autistic-like children. Proceedings of the National Society for Autistic Children Conference, Washington, DC, June 1974.
* Condon, W. S. and Sander, L. W. (1974). Neonate movement is synchronized with adult speech. Integrated participation and language acquisition. Science 183:99.
* Condon, W. S. (1963) Synchrony units and the communicational hierarchy. Paper presented at Western Psychiatric Institute & Clinics, Pittsburgh, PA
[edit] References
1. ^ Interactional Synchrony Studies, Inc.
2. ^ Cómo descifrar
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